Unit 0

People tend to overestimate their abilities and knowledge

Overconfidence

Example of overconfidence

Thinking they are smarter, faster, stronger, more capable, aware, ad observant than they really are

The tendency to believe, after leaning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight is known as the …

I knew it all along

Scientists form hypotheses from theories, conduct research, and refine theories based on observations

Scientific Method

An explanation that organizes data and predicts observations (not a fact)

Theory

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Hypothesis

Repeating a study to see if the findings hold true with other participants or situations

Replication

Observation techniques that record what happens but do not explain why it happens.

Descriptive Methods

Research method that studies one person in depth to find universal principles

Case Study

Advantage of case studies for unique or ethically sensitive situations

Provides insight when large-scale studies are unethical

Limitation of case studies

Difficult to generalize findings to larger populations

Example of case study

Studying rare brain phenomena or socially isolated children

Method to gather self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a representative sample

Survey

Purpose of a representative sample in surveys

To reflect the characteristics of the entire population

Purpose of a random sample in surveys

Every individual has an equal chance of selection

Limitation of surveys: people may answer in a socially desirable way

Social-Desirability Bias

Example of a survey

Gallup polls

Observing and recording behavior in natural settings without manipulating the situation

Naturalistic Observation

Advantage of naturalistic observation

Can observe people/animals in real, realistic environments

Limitation of naturalistic observation

Researchers cannot control events or variables

Example of naturalistic observation

Videotaping parenting across cultures or studying animal behavior in the wild

A measure of how much two variables change together and how well one predicts the other

Correlation

Scatterplot: a graph showing a cluster of dots representing two variables. Less scatter indicates stronger correlation

Correlation

Types of correlation

Positive correlation, negative correlation, no/zero correlation

Numerical measure of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

A measure of how meaningful the relationship or difference is between variables/groups

Effect Size

Perceiving a relationship between variables even when none exists

Illusory Correlation

When two variables are related, but it’s unclear which causes the other

Directionality Problem

When a third variable causes a mistaken causal relationship between two other variables

Third Variable Problem

Research method that isolates and controls variables to determine cause and effect

Experimental Methods

The variable being manipulated; the presumed cause in an experiment

Independent Variable (IV)

The outcome being studied; the effect of the independent variable

Dependent Variable (DV)

Assigning participants to groups so each has an equal chance, reducing bias

Random Assignment

Participants report positive effects due to belief in a treatment, even if it has no real effect

Placebo Effect

Procedure where participants do not know which group they are in

Single-Blind Procedure

Procedure where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing experimenter bias

Double-Blind Procedure

Collecting non-numerical data to understand concepts or opinions

Qualitative Measures

Collecting numerical data to measure concepts precisely

Quantitative Measures

Participants are provided information and voluntarily agree to participate

Informed Consent

Explaining the true purpose of a study to participants after it ends

Debriefing

Committee that reviews human research for ethical violations

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews animal research for ethical violations

Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee (IACUC)