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Measures of Central Tendency
Statistical measures that summarize a set of data by identifying the central point within that dataset.
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.
Normal Distribution
A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence.
Standard Deviation
A statistic that measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean.
Variance
The average of the squared differences from the mean, representing the degree of spread in a set of values.
Ethics in Research
Guidelines developed to ensure the proper treatment and respect of participants in research studies.
Action Potential
A rapid rise and subsequent fall in voltage or membrane potential across a cellular membrane.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.
Calculating Variance Steps
Calculate the mean. 2. Subtract the mean from each score. 3. Square each deviation score. 4. Sum the squared deviations. 5. Divide by n for variance.
Calculating Standard Deviation
Take the square root of the variance to obtain the standard deviation.
Group A Mean
Mean = 125/5 = 25.
Group B Mean
Mean = 100/5 = 20.
Group A Total Sum of Squares
Total Sum of Squares = 600.
Group B Total Sum of Squares
Total Sum of Squares = 250.
Group A Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation (SD) = 10.95.
Group B Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation (SD) = 7.07.
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
An unethical medical study conducted from the 1930s to 1970s that influenced ethics in human research.
Syphilis
A sexually transmitted bacterial disease that can lead to heart and brain damage if untreated.
Research Ethics
A set of general principles regarding how participants should be treated and respected in research.
Ethics in Animal Research
Ethical considerations that also apply to research involving non-human animals.
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Do good, not harm; weigh costs and benefits of research.
Fidelity and Responsibility
Develop trusting relationships with participants; protect participants.
Informed Consent
Participants should be informed about the study's nature, including any risks.
Integrity
Be accurate, honest, and non-biased in science, writing, and teaching.
Justice
Refers to who benefits; should be the participant or their group.
Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion criteria + exclusion criteria.
Inclusion Criterion
For example, 'children between 1 and 2 years old' in a language development study.
Exclusion Criterion
For example, 'no individuals fewer than 50 years of age' in a study on memory loss.
Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
Protecting rights, privacy, and welfare of participants.
Internal Review Boards (IRBs)
Review and assess for application of ethical principles in research.
Research Ethics Board (REB)
At uottawa, this is the board that reviews research ethics applications.
Sound Research Design
Use sound research design to minimize risk.
Informed Consent Process
Each participant must be informed of the nature of the study before signing.
Consent Form Items
Includes who is running the study, why it is being conducted, risks and benefits, and participant withdrawal rights.
The Facebook Emotional Contagion Experiment
A 2012 study where researchers manipulated news feeds of 689,000 users without informed consent.
Deception in Research
Participants may be misled about the true nature of an experiment for research purposes.
Anonymity
Ensuring that participant identities are not disclosed.
Confidentiality
Keeping participant data private.
Vulnerabilities
Awareness of factors like age, religion, socioeconomic status, race, and disability that may affect participants.
Coercion
Participants should not be pressured, e.g., through financial incentives.
Withdrawal Rights
Participants can withdraw from the study at any time without consequence.
Benefits vs. Risks
Benefits of the research must outweigh the risks to participants.
Research Ethics Approval
Researchers must obtain ethics approval before conducting studies.
Informed Consent
An agreement obtained from participants that includes information about the study, including any deception involved.
Milgram Experiment
A psychological experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s to study obedience, where participants believed they were administering electric shocks to a learner.
Deception in Research
A practice where participants are misled about the true nature of a study, which raises ethical concerns if not properly justified.
IRB
Internal Review Board, a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.
Confederate
An actor involved in the experiment who is aware of the true purpose of the study and helps manipulate the situation.
Electric Shock Generator
A fake device used in the Milgram Experiment that appeared to deliver electric shocks to the learner.
Results of Milgram Experiment
Findings showed that all participants delivered shocks up to 300 volts, and two-thirds continued to 450 volts despite believing the learner was in distress.
Maleficence
The ethical principle that refers to causing harm to participants, which was observed in the distress and trauma experienced by Milgram's participants.
Vulnerable Populations
Groups of individuals who may be at increased risk in research settings, such as prisoners or children, requiring special ethical considerations.
Decisional Impairment
A condition where individuals cannot make informed decisions or understand instructions, impacting their ability to give consent.
Assent
An agreement from a minor or individual unable to give informed consent, typically obtained alongside consent from a parent or guardian.
Research Values
Principles that influence what is studied, how it is studied, and how results are interpreted in research.
Ethical Guidelines for Special Populations
Research should only be conducted with special populations if healthy participants cannot answer the research question.
Minimal Risk
A principle stating that studies should create the least possible risk to participants.
Debriefing
The process of explaining the true nature of the study to participants after its completion, addressing any questions they may have.
Freedom and Dignity
Ethical considerations that emphasize the importance of respecting participants' autonomy and worth, which was violated in the Milgram Experiment.
Research Ethics
A field of study focused on the moral principles guiding research practices to ensure the welfare of participants.
Historical Context of Milgram's Research
Milgram's interest in obedience was influenced by the Nuremberg trials and the concept of 'crimes against humanity' post-WWII.
Psychological Manipulation
The use of research findings to influence or control people's behavior, raising ethical concerns about the application of psychological knowledge.
Community-Based Participants
Individuals from the general population who take part in research studies, as seen in the Milgram Experiment.
Cognitive Disabilities
Conditions that impair an individual's ability to understand or process information, affecting their capacity to give informed consent.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Neurons
Specialized cells of the nervous system that communicate by releasing chemicals (neurotransmitters) that change electrical activity in other neurons.
Glial Cells
Support cells in the nervous system that outnumber neurons 10:1 and have various functions including providing nutrients and removing waste.
Neuron Structure
Neurons have three basic parts: dendrites, cell body (soma), and axon.
Dendrites
Branches of a neuron that receive information from other neurons.
Cell Body (Soma)
The part of the neuron that integrates signals received from dendrites.
Axon
The long part of a neuron that transmits electrical signals (action potentials) to other neurons.
Action Potential
An electrical signal that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released.
Synapse
A gap between the presynaptic neuron (sending) and the postsynaptic neuron (receiving).
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released by neurons that transmit signals across the synapse.
Refractory Period
The time following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire again.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.
All-or-None Response
The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.
Vesicles
Small structures containing neurotransmitters that release them into the synaptic cleft.
Terminal Buttons
Small protrusions at the end of the axon terminal where neurotransmitters are released.
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate the movement of the electric signal along the axon.
Astrocytes
A type of glial cell that structurally supports neurons and provides nutrients.
Microglia
A type of glial cell that forms the immune system of the brain, fighting infections and removing waste.
Oligodendrocytes
Glial cells in the CNS that wrap their fat tissue around axons to form myelin.
Schwann Cells
Glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that form myelin around nerves.
Neural Communication
The process by which neurons transmit signals to one another through electrical and chemical means.
Neural Networks
Networks of neurons that work together to produce behavior and are influenced by experience.
Neurons in Humans
Estimates suggest humans have about 80 to 90 billion neurons.
Connections Between Neurons
Estimates suggest there are about 100,000 trillion connections between neurons.
