IB Psych Year 1 Semester 1 Review

Lab experiment

Experiments conducted under specific controlled conditions in which the researchers manipulate the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. There is a high degree of control over extraneous variables in lab experiments, but they also lack ecological validity due to the particular nature of the environment in which they take place.

Field experiments

Experiments carried out in real life settings in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable and participants typically don’t know that they’re taking part in the experiment. They often have high ecological validity and are more representative of every day behavior, but there are ethical issues to consider.

Natural experiment

Experiments where the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable and instead examines the effect of an existing naturally occurring independent variable on a dependent variable. They have a super high ecological validity, but there is no control over the environment or extraneous variables and can be difficult to assess results.

Matched pairs

Rather than completely random allocation, researchers use this to form groups based on common characteristics. The variable which is controlled is called the matching variable. Matched pairs designs are preferred when the researcher finds it particularly important that the groups are equivalent in a specific variable or when the sample size is not large (less chance of randomness)

Independent measure

Involves random allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups. Only the independent variable is changed when comparing groups and the rationale is that all potential cofounding variables cancel each other out.

Repeated measures

Used when the goal is to compare conditions rather than groups of participants. The same group of participants is exposed to two (or more) conditions, and the conditions are compared. Vulnerable to order effects: results may differ depending on which condition comes first (same group exposed to both control and experimental conditions)

Independent variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher

Dependent variable

The variable expected to change as the independent variable changes.

Rosenthal & Jacobson Study

Field, experiment, teachers, school, students, IQ test, expectations, intellectual bloomers, top 20%, academics, test scores, first and second grade, random.

Random sampling

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of becoming part of the sample. This is the ideal approach to make a sample representative because with a sufficient sample size, you consider all possible essential characteristics of the target population, and the results tend to be generalizable. However, random sampling is not always possible for practical reasons, and it is very hard to obtain.

Opportunity/convenience sampling

For this technique, you recruit participants that are easily available and convenient to find/use. Opportunity sampling is generally the technique of choice when financial resources and time are limited or if there is a reason to believe that people are not that different in terms of the study. It can be useful when generalizability is not a concern. However, a limitation of this technique is that it fosters a lack of representativeness and diversity.

Self-selected sampling

This technique refers to recruiting volunteers. It is a quick and relatively easy way to recruit individuals while maintaining wide coverage at the same time. However, there is a lack of representativeness. People who volunteered to take part and experiments may be more motivated in the general population or maybe looking for incentives or reward.

Purposive sampling

The main characteristics of participants are defined in advance. Researchers then recruit participants who have these characteristics, but the proportions in simple sizes are not defined. This technique definitely cannot be generalized.

Snowball sampling

A small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who are also of interest for the purposes of the research. This approach is mostly used in pilot research studies or in research with groups of people who are very difficult to reach.

Piliavin & Rodin study

New York City, subway, ill man, drunk man, frequency/speed of help, opportunity sampling

Consent

Participation in a study must be voluntary, and participants must fully understand the nature of their involvement, including the aims of the study, what tasks they will be exposed to, and how the data will be used. Researchers should provide as much information as possible as clear as possible and they should get parental/legal guardian consent for participants who are minors.

Protection from harm

At all times during the study, participants must be protected from both physical and mental harm, including possible negative short term and long-term consequences of participation in the research study.

Confidentiality & Anonymity

Participation in a research study is confidential if there is someone (typically a researcher) who can connect the results of the study to the identity of a particular participant, but the terms of agreement prevent this person from sharing the data. Participation in a study is anonymous if no one can trace the results back to our participants identity because no personal details have been provided.

Deception

When the true aims of the study cannot be revealed to the participants because it would change their behavior. Necessary for most studies to protect the true aim of the study, but it must be kept to the necessary minimum.

Right to withdraw

Must be made explicitly clear to participants that, since their participation is voluntary, they are free to withdraw from the study at any time. Researchers may not prevent participants from withdrawing or try to convince them to stay.

Debriefing

Once the study is complete, participants must be fully informed about its nature, it’s true aims, and how the data will be used and stored. They must also be given the opportunity to review their results and withdraw the data if they want to. All deception used must be revealed within the debriefing.

Milgram study

Human obedience, teacher/learner role, shock, generator, memorization task, word, pairs, shocks administered by participants with incorrect responses, increasing volts of electricity, bad ethics (deception, no protection from mental harm, no clear right to withdraw, no proper debrief, etc.), self selected sampling, lab experiment

Maturation bias

In experiments, participants go through natural development processes, such as fatigue or simply growth, resulting in uncertainty concerning whether a change behavior is due to the independent variable or naturally occurring growth/development variables. The counteracting strategy would be using a control group.

Demand characteristics

Refers to a situation in which participants understand (or think that they understand) the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior subconsciously to fit that interpretation. One way to control it is through single blind control.

Single blind control

A way to control demand characteristics where participants do not know what the study is about or what group they are in.

Experimenter bias

Refers to situations in which the researcher unintentionally exerts an influence on the results of the study. One way to control experimental bias is through double blind control.

Double blind control

A way to control experimental bias, where both participants and researchers do not know what group they are in or the aim of the experiment.

Social Desirability bias

A participants tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them liked or accepted. This may be done, intentionally or unintentionally, and research into sensitive topics is especially vulnerable to social desirability. Questions should be phrased in a non-judgmental way that suggests that any answer is acceptable.

Acquiesce bias

A tendency to give positive answers whatever the question. Some people are acquiescent by nature, and others acquiescence may be induced by the nature of the questions or the researchers behavior. To avoid this, researchers should be careful not to ask leading questions, making their questions open ended, neutral, and focused on the opinions of the participant.

Sampling bias

Occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research. For example, the selection of people who are not “the best fit“ in terms of the research purposes may be the result of convenience/opportunity sampling.

Rosenthal & Fode Study

Animal behavior, experimental bias/effects, rats, maze-bright, maze-dull, learning, random selection, maze + obstacles, darker arm, double blind control, lab experiment

Observation

A fundamental research strategy involving the careful, systematic watching and recording of behaviors, interactions, or phenomenon in natural or controlled settings to gather data, identify patterns, and understand the complexity of the mind, behavior, and learning

Naturalistic observation

Carried out in naturally occurring settings, and it may sometimes be the only choice in order to observe a natural trait (violence, aggression, etc.) but it may be time-consuming because the behavior of interest may only occur at certain times or infrequently.

Overt observation

Occurs when participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed. Strengths of this approach include the ethics, but limitations include methodological limitations, or biases related to participant expectations.

Covert observation

The researcher does not inform the members of the group about the reasons for their presence. Strengths include gaining access to groups that would not normally agree to participate and an avoidance of participant bias, but ethics are a big limitation.

Participant observation

The observer becomes part of the observed group. Advantages include that they allow the researcher to gain firsthand experiences and gain valuable insights. Limitations, however, include the risk that the observer will lose objectivity as they become more involved with the group of studied individual individuals.

Interview

A purposeful, structured conversation between an interviewer and interviewee to gather in depth information about thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and history

Structured interview

Includes a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a set order. It is most useful when the research project involves multiple interviewers (and comparisons being made) and it is essential that they all conduct the sessions in a similar way

Semi-structured interview

These interviews do not specify in order or particular set of questions. Researchers know that certain questions must be asked, but beyond that they can ask follow up questions to get clarification. If it better fits the flow of conversation, the researcher can change the order of questions.

Unstructured interview

Mostly participant driven and every next question is determined by the interviewee’s answer to the previous question. However, the researcher still has to keep in mind the overall purpose of the research and stay focused on exploring a particular topic. Two interviews may end up getting very different questions.

Focus group

A special type of semi+structured interview that is conducted simultaneously with a group of 6 to 10 people. The key factor is that participants are encouraged to interact with each other and the interviewer is to serve as a facilitator. Focus group facilitator can observe group dynamics and make use of it by directing group members interaction to maintain focus on the research topic. It is a quick and easy way to get information from several participants at the same time, however, responses can be distorted if one participant “takes the lead“ and it’s difficult to preserve and anonymity and confidentiality.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual or a group. Case studies can involve a variety of other methods (observations, interviews, etc.) anything that deepens our understanding of an individual or a group interest. Individuals/group is unique in someway leading to deeper understanding of this particular individual or group. In case studies sampling is not an issue and there was less focus on generalized ability. They are useful to study phenomenon that could not otherwise be studied, and they can contradict established theories and help create new ones. However, there is an issue of researcher bias, participant, bias, generalization, and many ethical consideration, commonly found in case studies.

Case study by Money

Case study, identical twin boys, circumduction accident, severed pnis, Dr. John money, raised as a girl following reassignment surgery, “Brenda“, did not behave like a girl, participant observation, twins committed suicide

Festinger study

Cult, world ending, apocalyptic, event, fails, covert + participant observation, researchers posed as “true believers” and joined quote, documented, behaviors, beliefs, actions of cult members, quote members became more committed to their beliefs after prophecy, failed by justifying that their faith saved the world, cognitive dissonance – people attempt to justify their behavior and adjust their beliefs to reduce mental discomfort from being proven wrong

Credibility

Refers to the degree to which the results of the study can be trusted to reflect reality. It is closely linked to bias because the results of the study do not reflect reality if there was some sort of bias in it. The higher, the constructibility the higher justification for validation of the experiment.

Generalizability

The extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study beyond the study itself. There are at least three aspects of generalizability.

Internal validity

Characterizes the methodological quality of the experiment. Linked directly to bias – the less bias, the greater the ____ of the experiment.

External validity

Characterizes generalizability of findings in the experiment. In other words, it is the extent to which studies results can be generalized to other people, settings, and times.

Sherif study

11 to 12-year-old boys from stable, middle class, homes, summer camp, randomly assigned to two groups, groups kept separate, competition between groups, boys develop developed hostility towards the other group, low, generalizability due to specific age and home life of all the boys, limited credibility, possibly due to potential experimental bias, Robber’s Cave State Park, purposeful sampling

Triangulation

Refers to a combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data. There are four types of triangulation. The first is method triangulation, aware of the same results are obtained using various methods, then credibility increases. There is data triangulation, which you first using data from a variety of sources. The next method is researcher triangulation, which refers to combining the observations/interpretations of different research researchers. Undoubtably, if two people see the same thing, this increases the credibility of their findings. Lastly theory triangulation refers to using multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data.

Reflexivity

Researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretations. A certain degree of subjectivity may be unavoidable, however, researchers need to be able to identify the findings that might have been affected the most. There are two types of reflexivity. The first type is personal reflexivity, which is like to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher and how these factors may shape/affect the research process or foundings. The second type is epistemological reflexivity, which is linked to knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data.

Rosenhan study

Covert participant observation, mentally healthy individuals gained admission to psychiatric hospitals, schizophrenia, diagnosed, stopped faking symptoms. Once admitted, seven of eight people successfully admitted with schizophrenia, then all released with schizophrenia and remission, researcher, triangulation, personal reflexivity.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

An environmental stimulus that is biologically, potent or something that causes a natural reaction

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An environment stimulus that is neutral in that by itself does not produce any biologically predetermined reaction, until paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a reaction.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A reflex, natural response to an unconditional stimulus

Conditioned response (CR)

A reflex response to a conditioned stimulus. Unlike the unconditioned response, which is hardwired into the brain as a biological reflex, the conditioned response is acquired through experience.

Little Albert study

Case study, classical conditioning, 11 month old Albert, white fluffy items, steel bar, creating a loud noise, fear response, unconditioned stimulus + condition stimulus = condition response

Positive reinforcement

When a reward is given in order to increase behavior. An example would be a rack gets food after presses a lever.

Negative reinforcement

When an adversive stimulus is removed to increase behavior. An example would be a loud, unpleasant noise stops when a rat presses a lever.

Positive punishment

when a negative consequence is introduced to decrease behavior. An example of this is administering an electric shock.

Negative punishment

One of the attractive factors removed to decrease behavior. An example of this is parents, not allowing their kid to play video games after they’ve misbehaved.

Accomodation

Adjusting the existing schema to better fit the reality/environment. This will only occur when assimilation fails.

Assimilation

Adjusting the reality to better fit the existing schema

Scripts

Schema about sequences of events. An example would be the typical course of action actions involved in, performing some activity, such as going to a restaurant or making coffee.

Anderson & Pichert study

Cognitive schemas, homebuyer + burglar, perspectives, text passage, burglar- relevant ideas in text, homebuyer/real estate agent–relevant information, filler tasks, reproduction of text passage as accurately as possible in writing, reassigned perspective

Bransford & Johnson study

Tape-recorded passage, recall information from passages, accurately as possible, five conditions: no context hearing at once, no context, hearing it twice, context before, context after, partial context (through a context picture), ability to comprehend passage, only clearly improved in the “context before” condition, schema theory – participants memory influenced based on condition

Multi store model of memory

Sensory Memory: Capacity is unlimited (only limited by our perception), duration is a fraction of a second, and condition is attention

Short term Memory: Capacity is 7±2 chunks of information, duration is generally no longer than 30 seconds (usually 20-30 seconds), and condition is rehearsal

Long term Memory: Capacity is unlimited, duration is unlimited, and condition is rehearsal

Glanzer & Cunitz study

Serial position effect – the tendency for people to remember first and last items in a series better than middle items, 15 word list, participants listen as list is read, free recall task, three conditions: recall task immediately after hearing words, a filler activity followed by a free recall task, and the same filler activity followed by free recall task, but with a 30 second delay, short term memory utilized

Central executive

Monitors and coordinates all other components of working model of memory

Visuospatial sketchpad

Inner eye, holds visual and spatial information within the working model of memory

Phonological loop

Inner ear/inner voice, holds sound information in a passive manner in the working model of memory

Episodic buffer

Integrates information from other components and links information to long-term memory structures within the working model of memory

Cognitive Load Theory

Refers to the amount of information our working memory can process at a given time and provides guidelines to those who prepare instructional materials

Framing effect

The tendency to avoid taking risks unless to avoid losses. Depend depends on whether outcomes are described as gains or losses, causing subjects to display different judgement

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs, and avoids information that contradicts them

Anchoring bias

Occurs when an individuals decision is influenced by the initial piece of information provided, even when that information is not not very relevant

Debiasing

The collective name for the group of methods and techniques designed to reduce the influence of cognitive biases that people may have or to entirely get rid of them. There are three types of DI biasing. The first is motivational deicing, which includes holding people accountable for their decisions of incentivizing them to make rational choices, and it relies on the assumption that people are capable of normative (rational) reasoning if they are motivated. The next is cognitive debiasing, which generally involves prescribing context-specific rules that are designed to overcome heuristics (simplified rules of reasoning). The third is technological deicing in which strategies involve using external tools, such as computer based decision, support system systems or even printed decision algorithms.

Tversky & Kahneman study

Framing effect, US preparing for “disease outbreak“, two options presented, programs were mathematically identical but phrased differently, guarantee of life versus probability of life, guarantee of death vs probability of death, participants only took “risks” if they believed that it would prevent losses and save lives

Wason study

Confirmation bias, participants given cards: A, D, 4, and 7, each card had one letter on one side and a number on the other side and if the letter was a vowel than the number would be even, participants asked to pick the cards and only the cards necessary to prove if the vowel/even number rule was true or false, participants ignored falsification through demonstrating confirmation bias

System l Thinking

Fast, intuitive, and automatic thinking. Used for making snap judgments based on past experiences without a deep analysis of the current situation

System ll Thinking

Slow, controlled, and rational thinking. Used for carrying out a deep rational analysis and making balanced decisions.

Descriptive models

Psychological models of system l thinking. Means describing the way it is.

Normative models

Models of system ll which referred to setting the norm and saying what it should be.

Heuristics

Simplified rules of reasoning, also referred to as cognitive shortcuts, used in system l.

Observational learning

Occurs by observing another person’s actions and without a trial-and-error process

Direct learning

Occurs when an individual performs an action and experiences its consequences (positive or negative)

Indirect learning

Occurs when an individual observes another person’s actions and their consequences

Factors effecting Social Learning Theory

Attention - Selected observation of modeled actions/activities

Retention - Transforming and stirring information into memory

Motor reproduction- Ability to perform the observed behavior

Motivation - Refers to the idea that learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned

Bandura study

Children, imitation, aggression, aggressive/non-aggressive behavior, random allocation into groups, adult models modeling aggressive/non-aggressive actions, bobo doll, same-sex models verse opposite sex models compared to children, observational learning

Cognitive dissonance

The mental stress caused by the inconsistency between one’s behavior and one’s beliefs