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Aztecs

Advanced civilization in Central Mexico; known for architecture, warfare, and the capital Tenochtitlan.

Presidios

Spanish military forts established to protect missions and settlers in the Americas.

Missions

Religious communities established by Spanish Catholics to convert Native Americans to Christianity.

Incas

Large empire in South America, based in the Andes Mountains, known for advanced engineering and centralized governance.

Encomienda

Spanish labor system that granted colonists the right to extract labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and conversion.

Andes Mountains

Mountain range in South America, home to the Inca civilization and a major geographic feature affecting colonial conquest.

Bartolome de las Casas

Spanish priest who advocated for the rights of indigenous people and opposed the encomienda system.

Cuzco

Capital of the Inca Empire, known for its sophisticated stonework and religious significance.

Seven Cities of Gold

Legendary cities of immense wealth that explorers like Coronado searched for in North America, though they never existed.

Eusebio Francisco Kino

Jesuit missionary who explored and established missions in the American Southwest, particularly Arizona.

Age of Exploration

Period marked by European global exploration, driven by desires for wealth, resources, and spreading Christianity.

Ferdinand and Isabel

Catholic monarchs of Spain who sponsored Columbus' voyages and completed the Reconquista.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer who, sponsored by Spain, made four voyages to the Americas, initiating European colonization.

Line of Demarcation

Boundary established by the Pope in 1493 to divide newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

"Invincible" Armada

Large Spanish fleet sent to invade England in 1588, but was defeated by the English navy and adverse weather.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided the non-European world between them along a meridian.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa

Spanish explorer who crossed the Isthmus of Panama, becoming the first European to see the Pacific Ocean.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, though he died en route.

Jamestown Colony

First permanent English settlement in the Americas, founded in Virginia in 1607.

Pedro Alvares Cabral

Portuguese navigator credited with the discovery of Brazil in 1500.

Roanoke Island

Site of the "Lost Colony," England's first attempt at establishing a permanent settlement in the New World.

John Cabot (Cabotto)

Italian explorer who sailed for England and made early claims to North America.

Charter of 1606

Document issued by King James I that authorized the Virginia Company to establish colonies in North America.

Northwest Passage

Hypothetical sea route through North America sought by explorers like John Cabot and Henry Hudson, but never found.

King James I

English monarch who granted charters for the establishment of colonies in North America, including Jamestown.

Samuel de Champlain

French explorer who founded Quebec and mapped much of northeastern North America.

Plymouth Company

One of the joint-stock companies chartered by King James I to establish settlements in North America.

Newfoundland

Area in eastern Canada where early European explorers like John Cabot landed; an important fishing ground.

London Company

The joint-stock company that established Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in America.

Giovanni de Verrazano

Italian explorer who sailed for France and explored the Atlantic coast of North America.

King John

English king who signed the Magna Carta in 1215, limiting the power of the monarchy and establishing legal rights.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River and laid the foundation for French claims in North America.

Magna Carta

1215 document that limited the powers of the English monarchy and established certain legal rights for citizens.

Martin Frobisher

English explorer who made three voyages to the New World searching for the Northwest Passage.

English Liberties

Rights and freedoms historically granted to English subjects, such as those outlined in the Magna Carta.

Francisco Coronado

Spanish explorer who led an expedition through the American Southwest in search of the Seven Cities of Gold.

Parliament

England's legislative body, consisting of the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

John Davis

English navigator who explored the Arctic regions and searched for the Northwest Passage.

House of Lords

Upper house of the English Parliament, representing the aristocracy and clergy.

Henry Hudson

English explorer who sailed for both England and the Dutch, exploring the river and bay that now bear his name.

House of Commons

Lower house of Parliament, representing commoners and possessing significant legislative power.

Humphrey Gilbert

English explorer who attempted to colonize Newfoundland but died at sea, paving the way for later British colonization.

John Smith

Leader of the Jamestown colony who implemented the 'No Work, No Food' policy, helping the settlement survive.

Hernando Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztec Empire and claimed Mexico for Spain.

Enclosure Movement

Process in England where common lands were fenced off, leading to displacement of peasants and increased migration to colonies.

Montezuma

Emperor of the Aztecs who was captured and killed during Cortes' conquest of Tenochtitlan.

Pocahontas

Daughter of Powhatan leader, who played a role in mediating between Native Americans and the Jamestown settlers.

Malinche/Dona Marina

Native woman who served as an interpreter and advisor to Hernando Cortes during the conquest of the Aztecs.

No Work, No Food

Policy implemented by John Smith in Jamestown requiring colonists to work in order to receive food.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru and executed its leader Atahualpa.

Starving Time

The harsh winter of 1609-1610 in Jamestown, during which many colonists died of starvation and disease.

Atahualpa

Last Inca emperor who was captured and executed by Francisco Pizarro during the Spanish conquest.

Powhatan Confederation

Alliance of Native American tribes in the Virginia area, led by Powhatan, who interacted with Jamestown settlers.

Florida

Region explored by Ponce de Leon and claimed for Spain, later becoming the first part of the continental U.S. colonized by Europeans.

Tobacco

Cash crop that became the economic foundation of the Jamestown colony and other southern colonies.

St. Augustine, FL

Oldest European settlement in the United States, established by the Spanish in 1565.

Fountain of Youth

Mythical spring is said to grant eternal youth, famously sought by Ponce de Leon during his explorations in Florida.

Panfilo de Narvaez

Spanish explorer who led a failed expedition to Florida, where most of his party perished, including himself.

Cabeza de Vaca

Survivor of the Narvaez expedition, who explored the American Southwest and wrote detailed accounts of Native cultures.

Hernando de Soto

Spanish explorer who led an expedition through the Southeastern U.S., becoming the first European to cross the Mississippi River.

Pedro de Peralta

Spanish official who established Santa Fe, New Mexico, one of the oldest European settlements in the U.S.

Fray Marcos de Niza

Spanish Franciscan friar who led an expedition in search of the Seven Cities of Gold, though he likely exaggerated his findings.

Estevanico

An enslaved African guide who explored the Southwest with Cabeza de Vaca and Fray Marcos de Niza, later killed by Native Americans.

Joao Rodrigues Cabrillo

Portuguese explorer who sailed for Spain, exploring the west coast of North America and discovering California in 1542.

Tenochtitlan

Capital of the Aztec Empire; located on an island in Lake Texcoco, known for its impressive architecture.

Italian City-States

Influential on the sea powers like Venice and Genoa that played key roles in trade and exploration during the Renaissance.

Pope( Tewa Shaman)

Leader of the Pueblo Revolt in 1680, which temporarily expelled Spanish colonizers from New Mexico.

Reconquista

The centuries-long Christian campaign to reclaim Spain from Muslim rule, influencing Spanish colonialism.

Renaissance

Cultural revival in Europe that spurred advancements in art, science, and exploration.

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement initiated by Martin Luther that challenged Catholic Church practices and led to the rise of Protestantism.

King Henry VIII

English monarch who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Anglican Church after the Pope refused to annul his marriage.

Portugal

Early leader in ocean exploration, with explorers like Vasco da Gama and Pedro Cabral expanding their empire overseas.

Martin Luther

Theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging Catholic Church practices with his 95 Theses.

Granada

The last Muslim stronghold in Spain, conquered by Ferdinand and Isabel in 1492, marking the completion of the Reconquista.

John Calvin

Key figure in the Protestant Reformation who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and a strict moral code.

Al-Andalus

The region of Spain under Muslim control before the Reconquista; known for cultural and scientific advancements.

Queen Elizabeth I

English queen who supported exploration and the defeat of the Spanish Armada, marking England's rise as a global power.

Anglican Church

The Church of England, founded by King Henry VIII after separating from the Catholic Church.

Sea Dogs

English privateers, like Sir Francis Drake, authorized by Queen Elizabeth I to raid Spanish ships and settlements.

Amerigo Vespucci

Italian explorer who realized the Americas were a new continent, leading to the naming of the "New World" after him.

Sir Francis Drake

English Sea Dog and explorer who circumnavigated the globe and helped defeat the Spanish Armada.

Sir Walter Raleigh

English explorer who established the Roanoke Colony, which later became known as the "Lost Colony."

Ponce De Leon

Spanish explorer who searched for the Fountain of Youth and claimed Florida for Spain

Virginia

First successful English colony in North America, established at Jamestown in 1607.

Croatoan

Mysterious word carved into a tree at the abandoned Roanoke Colony, possibly indicating where the settlers went.