Individuals - (1855-1894) - Russia

Alexander II - Before 1866

Tsar of Russia (1855-81). Implemented: Emancipation of serfs (Feb 1861 signed), military (61-81), Education (1863-64), Judicial (1864-65), Local government (1864), Dumas (1870) + minorities reforms. These all mostly moved towards a more liberated Russia (due to liberal ministers).

Alexander II - After 1866

For a period of time following Assassination attempts in 1866,1867,1879,1879,1880 and the death of his eldest son (1865) he took a more reactionary stance. Ministry of education (1866), Vera Zasulich (1878), Censorship returning (1870s). Minorities / russification also intensified following the Polish revolt (1863). He then became more liberal towards the end of his reign when he appointed Mikhail Loris-Melikov (1880) to head a special commission to restore order

Alexander III

A reactionary Tsar, held very conservative, antisemitic views. Feared revolutionary activity due to A2’s death (lived in a fortified fortress). Tutored by Pobedonostsev who fostered his slavophile, anti-semetic ideas. Issued the “Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy” (1881), a “Statute of state security” and extreme russification. Almos moved towards stricter policy changes, (eg. Okhrana). But, was modern with economy policies. 

Alexander Golovnin (Education before 1886)

Minister for education (1862-67), implemented educational reforms so Zemstva took over responsibilities of running schools from the Orthodox Church. Education for all approach now taken so all glasses and sexes could be educated (although women could not get degrees). Universities give much more freedoms that caused student mutual aid groups and radical ideas to began to form - replaced by Count Tolstoy

Count Tolstoy (Education after 1866-)

Replaced Alexander Golovnin as Minister of education (1866-80) and was also Over-procurator of the holy synod. Much more conservative, gave control of schools back to the orthodox church. He encouraged the teaching of traditional curriculums (only those taught these could attend universities) and encouraged non-critical thinking subjects. Govt cracked down on universities, including being able to veto university appointments.

Vera Zasulich (1878)

A woman who shot and wounded the governor of St Petersburg because of his exceptional cruelty to his political prisoners (flogging). Pled guilty to the charge to the jury who accepted that her act was politically justified and brought in a non-guilty verdict when political prisoners were brought in to testify. The testimonies moved the public. Consequently the Govt moved political trials to separate, more controlled courts

Konstantin Pobedonostsev

Tutor to A3 and N2. An extreme slavophile, anti-seminist and orthodox Christian. Fostered A3’s reactionary ways + was appointed Over-procurator of the Holy-Synod (1880). Jews suffered terribly (pogroms), Muslims were forced to convert in central Asia, Orthodox cathedrals were built all over the empire + money was spend on orthodox controlled schools

Count Mikhail Loris - Melikov

Was appointed head of a special commission to restore order in terrorism and then Minister of internal affairs (1880). He put 31,000 under surveillance, released political prisoners, relaxed censorship and abolished the third section. “Loris-Melikov’s constitution” (in reality a report) suggested a consultative body to be established made up of elected representative from nobles, zemstvas and dumas to aid in debates of drafts for state decrees. Was given preliminary approval on the day of A2s death but opposed by A3 .

Dmitry Milyutin

Implemented the military reforms (1861-81) under Tsar Alexander II (War minister). Had been in the army but was wounded in active service and afterwards travelled Europe, which convinced him of Russia’s need for reforms. He opposed serfdom, freeing the serfs before the emancipation legislation. A pioneering, liberal enlightened official, but not as extreme in his views as his brother, Nicholas. Resigned after Alexander II’s assassination due to A3’s political ideas

Nicholas Milyutin

Deputy minister of the interior (1858) and member of the Editing Commission drawing up the emancipation edicts (1859). Had access to the St Petersburg intelligentsia - he heard enlightened ideas of Russian reform. Was dismissed by A2 to appease conservative nobles who believed him too liberal.