wars and reconstruction

The Philippine-American War

(1899–1902)

Japanese Occupation during World War II

(1942–1945)

Outbreak of the War (February 4, 1899)

The Philippine-American War began on_____when an American soldier shot at Filipino troops near Manila. The war officially began when President William McKinley and the U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris, which transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States. Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo viewed this as a betrayal of their independence, leading to armed resistance against American rule.

Battle of Manila (1899)

The Battle of Manila lasted from _______ It was the first major engagement of the war. U.S. forces, aiming to secure control over Manila, defeated the outnumbered and less-equipped Filipino troops with superior firepower, including artillery and naval support. The fall of Manila marked a turning point, causing Aguinaldo’s forces to retreat into the countryside and adopt guerrilla warfare tactics.

Aguinaldo’s Capture (1901)

– On March 23,______, General Frederick Funston captured Emilio Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela. Funston and his troops, disguised as prisoners, infiltrated Aguinaldo's hideout, overpowered his guards, and took him into custody. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila, where he swore allegiance to the United States on April 1, 1901. His capture severely weakened Filipino resistance, as many revolutionaries saw his surrender as a sign that the war was lost.

End of War (1902)

The Philippine-American War officially ended on July 4, ____when President Theodore Roosevelt declared victory and offered amnesty to Filipino insurgents who surrendered. Despite this, some resistance, led by figures like Macario Sakay, continued until suppressed. The war caused heavy casualties, with an estimated 200,000 to 600,000 Filipino deaths due to combat, famine, and disease, while U.S. losses numbered around 4,200 troops. Afterward, the Philippines became an American colony.

Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964)

________ was the leader of the Philippine Revolution and the first President of the Philippine Republic. He organized the resistance against U.S. forces, initially led the war effort, and declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. His leadership and vision for an independent Philippines were central to the war, even though he was eventually captured in 1901.

Antonio Luna (1866-1899)

________ was a skilled military strategist and general in the Filipino army. He improved the organization and discipline of Filipino forces by emphasizing the use of modern military tactics. Luna played a crucial role in several key battles, including the defense of Manila and the Battle of Caloocan. He was instrumental in trying to unify the Filipino forces, though his leadership was cut short by his assassination in 1899.

Gregorio del Pilar (1875-1899)

was one of the youngest and most courageous Filipino generals. He is most remembered for his defense of Tirad Pass, where he made a heroic stand to delay U.S. forces and allow President Aguinaldo to escape. Del Pilar’s sacrifice became a symbol of Filipino patriotism and resilience in the face of overwhelming odds.

President William McKinley (1843-1901)

____________ was the U.S. president when the PhilippineAmerican War began. He decided to occupy the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, which led directly to the war with Filipino forces who had declared independence. McKinley’s decision to maintain military occupation and eventually establish a civil government in the Philippines had a lasting impact on the nation's colonial relationship with the U.S.

General Arthur MacArthur Jr. (1845-1912)

As commander of U.S. forces, MacArthur led military operations throughout the war. His leadership in battles like the Battle of Manila and in suppressing Filipino guerrilla resistance helped secure American control over the Philippines.

General Frederick Funston (1865-1917)

 was known for his successful capture of Emilio Aguinaldo in 1901, which significantly weakened the Filipino resistance. His actions marked a turning point in the war, leading to the collapse of organized Filipino resistance and the eventual end of the conflict.

High Casualties and Suffering

Over 200,000 Filipino civilians died, primarily from disease and starvation.

U.S. Colonial Rule

The Philippines became a U.S. colony, with American policies shaping the country’s education, infrastructure, and government.

Rise of Filipino Nationalism

The war fueled anti-colonial sentiment in the Philippines, paving the way for future independence movements

Education Reforms 

Education Reforms – The U.S. pushed for Americanization and introduced English-based instruction in schools with deployed American teachers ("Thomasites").

U.S. Imperialism

The war marked a shift in U.S. foreign policy by expanding its imperial presence in the Pacific and establishing the Philippines as a strategic location.

On December 8, 1941

Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines hours after bombing Pearl Harbor.

Fall of Bataan (April 9, 1942)

It was the largest U.S. and Filipino surrender in history. The defense delayed the Japanese advance in the Pacific, giving the U.S. time to regroup and prepare for future operations. After surrendering, 76,000 soldiers endured the brutal 65-mile Bataan Death March, where thousands died from exhaustion, disease, and executions carried out by the Japanese forces.

Japanese Control (1942-1944)

After occupying the Philippines, the Japanese established military rule with severe consequences. They formed the Second Philippine Republic under President José P. Laurel, though it operated as a puppet government. The Japanese exploited the nation's economy by utilizing resources, imposing forced labor, and controlling industries to support their war effort. Meanwhile, human rights abuses were widespread, including massacres, sexual slavery (comfort women), and the brutal treatment of civilians.

Guerilla Resistance

Despite Japanese control, Filipinos actively resisted through guerrilla warfare. The Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap), a communist-led movement, fought against the Japanese and later gained influence in post-war politics. Many civilians supported the guerrillas by providing food, shelter, and intelligence. Filipino and American guerrillas secretly sabotaged Japanese supply lines, ambushed troops, and gathered intelligence for Allied forces.

Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944)

The battle was a turning point in the Pacific War and the largest naval battle in history, where General Douglas MacArthur fulfilled his promise to return, marking the beginning of the liberation of the Philippines. It also saw Japan's first large-scale use of Kamikaze pilots, which reflected their desperation, while the U.S. Navy decisively defeated the Japanese fleet, crippling Japan's naval power.

The Liberation of Manila (February 1945)

The battle to recapture Manila was one of the most destructive urban battles of World War II. Around 100,000 Filipino civilians were killed, mainly due to heavy bombardment and Japanese massacres, making it one of the deadliest events for the local population. The battle ended Japanese control over the Philippines and paved the way for its full liberation. However, Manila was devastated, with many of its historic areas and infrastructure destroyed in the fierce battle between American and Japanese forces.

Japanese Surrender (September 2, 1945)

 World War II officially ended with Japan’s surrender. The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), prompting Japan to surrender. On ____ Formally surrendered aboard the USS Missouri. The war’s end accelerated discussions for full Philippine independence, which was granted on July 4, 1946.

Human Cost

The Japanese occupation of the Philippines caused immense suffering. Over one million Filipinos died from combat, massacres, forced labor, starvation, and disease. The Japanese Imperial Army committed atrocities, including mass executions, torture, and sexual slavery (comfort women). The Bataan Death March saw thousands of Filipino and American prisoners of war endure a brutal 65-mile march, resulting in thousands of deaths. The Battle of Manila in 1945 destroyed the city, killing around 100,000 civilians and leaving it in ruins.

Economic Devastation 

The Japanese occupation devastated the Philippine economy. Cities, infrastructure, and industries were bombed, while agriculture and trade were disrupted, leading to food shortages and inflation. The "Mickey Mouse Money" issued by the Japanese became worthless, and foreign businesses shut down, severely delaying economic recovery.

Political Changes 

The war and occupation transformed the Philippines' political landscape. The Japanese set up a puppet government, the Second Philippine Republic, under President José P. Laurel, which lacked legitimacy and faced resistance. Guerrilla groups like the Hukbalahap grew in power, later influencing post-war politics.