13. Confrontation in the Vietnam War

What did the historian Fredrik Logevall comment on Johnson's attitude towards Vietnam?

'In the early months, he viewed all Vietnam options through the lens of the 1964 election'

What was Johnson's primary aim in Vietnam?

To achieve a quick victory without the need to commit the USA to a major escalation of its role in Vietnam.

What was the clear conflict in Johnson's thinking?

Win the war without it becoming 'Americanised.'

Implementation of OPLAN 34A

In January 1964. A strategy based on covert action 'progressively escalating pressure... to inflict increasing punishment upon North Vietnam' and designed to force Hanoi to 'desist from its aggressive policies.'

What did Johnson overtly continue with?

Kennedy's approach by increasing the number of military 'advisers' from 16,300 to 23,300 and stuck to the counterinsurgency strategy so favoured by Kennedy.

Who was not convinced of Johnson's approach to Vietnam?

The USA' western European allies & support from the international community began to diminish. France's leader warned Johnson that increased involvement could lead to a repeat of France's failed experience in Indochina.

Neutralism

A scheme proposed by France that called for a negotiated settlement and would end all South Vietnam's military links with external states, thus leaving it exposed to North Vietnam.

What did the lack of international support strengthen?

Johnson's inclination to delay any significant escalation of the USA's role in the war by mid 1964

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 1964

News reached Washington of an attack on a US naval vessel by a North Vietnamese force in the Gulf of Tonkin.
In response to this on 7 August 1964, Congress agreed upon presenting Johnson with the power to take whatever action he felt necessary to resist any armed attacks on US forces in Vietnam and to prevent any further aggression.
Robert McNamara believed it worked 'to open the flood gates.'

By the end of 1964:

- China agreed to provide military supplies to North Vietnam
- The USSR established diplomatic links with the NLF & set up a permanent mission in Moscow. Military equipment was sent to north Vietnam
- The North Vietnamese military forces moved down the Ho Chi Minh Trail
- The Vietcong had strengthened their positions in many parts of South Vietnam e.g the Mekong Delta near Saigon
- It was clear to the US that the bombing response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident had failed to bolster South Vietnam's government. A rise in Anti-American feeling among the population
- The ARVN had a low morale due to poor leadership, inadequate training and low pay.

Escalation of USA' s role in Vietnam was confirmed by what?

Johnson's victory in the presidential election and the Gulf of Tonkin resolution
His initial post- election thinking was based on armed reconnaissance strikes and graduated military response against the North.

What was Johnson convinced of?

That faced with economic and military might of the USA, that North Vietnam would back down. Johnson had a mandate from Congress to take whatever action he deemed fit in order to protect US interests.
Offers to arrange talks were made by the UN Secretary- General but were rejected by the USA, as were efforts made by the Canadians. Hanoi also sent out subtle indications that it was willing to negotiate.

Operation Rolling Thunder (1965)

Series of bombing campaign that start in March 1965. Largely trying to cut off the Ho Chi Minh Trail, but proved very difficult. Tens of thousands of American troops are being sent to Vietnam. At the peak, there are 536,000 troops in Vietnam. The first US Combat troops had arrived near Danang in March 1965.

The day after Johnson's keynote speech, what did North Vietnam do?

They offered a four-point proposal:

* US troops must withdraw from South Vietnam, in accordance with the Geneva agreements.
* Neither North nor South Vietnam may enter into any military alliance with a foreign power during the temporary division of Vietnam (Geneva)
* SV internal affairs must be settled by the people of SV, in accordance with the program of the NLF and w/o external influence -the peaceful reunification of Vietnam must be settled only by the people of both zones.

Why did Johnson reject NV's four point proposal and what did he do instead?

He believed that acceptance may have led to unified and communist Vietnamese state. Instead he ordered two marine battalions, an air squadron and 20,000 troops to be deployed in Vietnam.
He publicly announced his decision to escalate the USA's military role on 29 July 1965.

By July 1965, how had the USA's role escalated?

The USA had deployed 75,000 ground troops in Vietnam.

NV POV: a clear indication that the USA was not merely preparing for the defence of SV.

The escalation that Johnson initiated strengthened the resolve of the NV leaders to continue the revolution in the South.

Where was the first significant engagement between the US & NV forces?

the La Drang Valley in the Central Highlands.

14 NOV - 24 NOV 1665

A conventional battle and it served to influence the tactics that became the hallmark of the war, particularly for the North Vietnamese.

Who considered the battle in the Central Highlands a success?

Both sides saw the battle as a success (NV held their position whereas the USA had a high enemy casualty figure)
The USA suffered about 300 people dead whereas the North had between 2000 and 3000 fatalities.

USA economic might

Massive logistical effort was put in to ensure the forces had the most modern equipment in plentiful supply.
Airfields and helicopter landing pads were constructed across the country.
By 1967, about 1 million tons of supplies were arriving into SV each month. The helicopter was seen as crucial component - deliver troops w/o risk of ambush & recovering troops especially if injured.

Attrition

The approach that Westmoreland favoured. US forces would simply keep on pounding away at the enemy in whatever way they could until they won.

What did the escalation begin with?

Operation Rolling Thunder
The Americans deployed the huge B-52 bomber as the key bombing tool. The basic aim was to destroy NV economy & undermine forces in south.

Did the objective of operation rolling thunder fail?

Yes.

NV was primarily an agrarian country & had few but well disguised military targets.

Relatively few centres of industrial production.

More bombs fell on Vietnam than were dropped during the entirety of WWII.

The US 7th Fleet controlled the seas around Vietnam and they had free access to serving as bases for air attacks.

What was the US militaristic effort constantly undermined by?

NV'S lost resources were being replaced through the aid from both the USSR and China.

Operation Ranch Hand (1962)

Initiated by Kennedy - involved spraying chemicals to defoliate the jungle and thereby remove the enemy cover. (Agent Orange) Agent Blue was sprayed over crops in an effort to derive the enemy of food. The overall outcome was that it alienated Vietnamese peasants whose crops and livelihoods were destroyed while the guerrillas carried on.

Anti-personnel bombs

'pineapple bombs'
Caused thousands of pellets to be freed in the explosion. Many civilians were victims of the weapon.
Another weapon used was napalm. A gel that spread over a wide area when it landed and was set on fire.

Search and destroy missions

a U.S military raid on a south Vietnamese village, intended to root out villagers with ties to the Vietcong but often resulting in the destruction of the village and the displacement of its inhabitants
undermined US efforts to engage rural peasants as allies so they would reject any support for the Vietcong.
success was determined by 'body count.'

The USA's weakness

- anti Vietnam war protests
- SV troops were not well trained and largely uncommitted to the struggle
- The US forces were further weakened by the widespread TV and press coverage of the war
- Some opponents were pacifists, some isolationists, others were challenging the right of the USA to determine the fate of other states.

What was the greatest weapon at the disposition of North Vietnam?

Determination of the troops and their ingenuity in battle. They knew the country and its people & received logistical support from China and the USSR.

Peasant Support

The Vietcong was strengthened by their ability to gain recruits from disaffected, anti-American rural peasantry. The principles of the NLF were modelled by those laid down by Mao:
- do not destroy land or crops
- always keep your word
- always show the peasants respect
- always support the peasants
These methods did win support but the Vietcong were also prepared to use significant violence against any peasants who challenged them. An element of cooperation through fear

NV Guerrilla tactics

To compensate for their inability to engage in conventional warfare, they adopted complex guerrilla tactics:

* complex tunnel systems were constructed to hide Vietcong troops


* booby traps of all kinds were deployed in the dense forests; e.g, trip wires that set off grenades and mines; and small groups of troops who ambushed US troops in the jungles

The Ho Chi Minh Trail

A network of paths used by North Vietnam to transport supplies to the Vietcong in South Vietnam
It passed through Cambodia and Laos - a regular target for US attacks but was never fully disabled

The Tet offensive, January - February 1968

Tet is the Vietnamese New Year. The U.S. assumed the Viet Cong would cease fighting for that day and let a lot of soldiers go on leave.
The entire Viet Cong attacked U.S. outposts and took the U.S. embassy. The plan was to stimulate a mass uprising against the Americans from the South Vietnamese.
The events were televised by US TV crew. The most ferocious fighting took place around Hue and there was no rapid US victory.
On 31 January, communist troops had entered the city but it was not until 24 February that SV flag was able to fly over the city again.

Why was the Tet offensive a failure for the Vietcong?

It was a massive military defeat. It didn't succeed in arousing much support from the South Vietnamese, and about 25,000 Vietcong were killed and 5000 captured.
The Vietcong, as a military organisation, had been decimated.

Why was the Tet Offensive considered a turning point in the Vietnam War for the USA?

It came at a time of growing disillusionment with the war of attrition that Westmoreland had orchestrated and Johnson had endorsed.
War correspondent, Walter Cronkite, famously enunciated the position of the USA. He said the Tet offensive had not shown the USA was reaching a point of defeat but rather a stalemate.

What was the size of the US force at the time of Tet?

The USA had 550,000 ground forces in Vietnam, and they had no alternative strategy under Johnson other than to continue the military escalation - a strategy that had failed and was now perceived by many as well as those in government as a failure.

Tet had been a psychological rather than a military defeat for the USA

It had shown the USA that the prospects of a quick end to the war and a US victory would be far away, if ever came at all. Military containment looked redundant.
In March 1968, Johnson announced that he did not intend to stand for re-election.