politics

Counties

Administrative divisions of a state that provide local government services and governance.

Dillon's Rule

A legal doctrine stating that local governments can only exercise powers explicitly granted to them by the state.

Home Rule

The authority of a local government to self-govern and make its own laws without state interference

Mayor

The elected head of a city government

Municipalities

Cities or towns that have their own local government and are incorporated for local governance.

Special Districts

Independent governmental units created for a specific purpose

Town Meeting Form of Government

A form of direct democracy where residents of a town gather to make decisions and vote on local issues.

City Council

A legislative body of a city

City Manager

An appointed official who oversees the daily operations of a city government and implements policies set by the city council.

Townships

Subdivisions of a county that provide local government services and governance

Functions of Local Government

The various roles and responsibilities of local governments

Metropolitan area

A region that encompasses a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories

Megaregion

A large network of metropolitan areas that are interconnected through economic

Sprawl

The spread of urban developments on undeveloped land near a city

Car-dependent living

A lifestyle where individuals rely heavily on automobiles for transportation due to the lack of public transit options and walkable infrastructure.

The negative impact of sprawl

Includes increased traffic congestion

White flight

The phenomenon where white residents move out of neighborhoods as African American or other minority populations move in

Gentrification

The process of urban renewal that leads to the influx of more affluent residents into a neighborhood

Common school

A public school that is open to all children in a community

Back to basics

An educational philosophy emphasizing fundamental skills in reading

Charter schools

Publicly funded schools that operate independently of the traditional public school system

Common Core State Standards

A set of educational standards for K-12 students in the United States that outline what students should know in math and English language arts at each grade level.

State board of education

A government body responsible for overseeing public education within a state

High stakes standardized testing

Testing that carries significant consequences for students or schools

Standards

Established benchmarks that outline what students should know and be able to do at each grade level.

School districts

Geographical areas governed by local education authorities responsible for managing public schools.

School board

A group of elected officials who oversee the policies and administration of a school district.

School voucher movement

A movement advocating for the use of public funding to allow students to attend private schools instead of public schools.

Homeschooling

An educational option where children are educated at home rather than in traditional public or private schools.

Teacher's unions

Organizations that represent the interests of teachers

National PTA

The National Parent Teacher Association

Local education agencies (LEA)

Local organizations responsible for the administration of public schools in a specific area.

No Child Left Behind

A U.S. law enacted in 2001 aimed at improving educational outcomes by increasing accountability and standardized testing.

Common law

A body of unwritten laws based on legal precedents established by the courts.

Deterrence theory

A theory in criminology that suggests punishment can prevent crime by instilling fear of consequences.

Mass incarceration

The substantial increase in the number of incarcerated individuals in the United States

Parole

The conditional release of a prisoner before the completion of their sentence

Probation

A court-ordered period of supervision in the community

Professional model of policing

A policing strategy that emphasizes professional standards

Racial profiling

The practice of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on their race or ethnicity.

Solitary confinement

A form of imprisonment where an inmate is isolated from the general population for 22 to 24 hours a day.

Stop and frisk

A policing practice where an officer stops a person based on reasonable suspicion and conducts a pat-down for weapons.

Supermax prisons

High-security prisons designed to house the most dangerous inmates under strict conditions of isolation.

Verdict

The formal decision or finding made by a jury or judge on the matters of a case.

War on drugs

A government-led initiative aimed at reducing illegal drug trade and use through strict enforcement and policy measures.

Broken windows policing

A strategy of policing that focuses on cracking down on minor offenses to prevent more serious crimes.

Zero Tolerance

A strict enforcement policy that imposes severe penalties for infractions

Clean Slate laws

Legislation that allows individuals to have their criminal records expunged after a certain period

Pandemic

An outbreak of a disease that occurs on a global scale

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)

A former federal assistance program in the United States that provided financial aid to low-income families with children.

Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP)

A program that provides health coverage to eligible children in families with incomes too high to qualify for Medicaid but too low to afford private coverage.

Entitlement program

A government program that guarantees certain benefits to a particular group or segment of the population.

Managed care

A health care delivery system that aims to manage cost

Medicaid

A joint federal and state program that helps with medical costs for some people with limited income and resources.

Obesity

A medical condition characterized by an excess of body fat

Poverty line

The minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country

Public Health

The science and practice of protecting and improving the health of people and their communities through education

Social determinants of health

The conditions in which people are born

Abstinence

The practice of refraining from engaging in sexual activity or the consumption of certain substances

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)

A federal assistance program in the United States that provides financial aid and services to low-income families with children.

Affordable Care Act

A comprehensive healthcare reform law enacted in 2010 aimed at increasing health insurance coverage and reducing healthcare costs in the United States.

Soda tax

A tax imposed on sugary beverages to discourage consumption and reduce obesity rates and related health issues.

Adaptation

The process of adjusting to new conditions

Cap and trade

An environmental policy tool that limits total greenhouse gas emissions and allows industries with low emissions to sell their extra allowances to larger emitters.

Carbon dioxide

A colorless

Clean Air Act

A United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level

Climate change

Long-term alterations in temperature

Fracking

A method of extracting natural gas and oil from underground rock formations by injecting high-pressure fluid to create fractures.

Greenhouse gases

Gases in the Earth's atmosphere that trap heat

Renewable energy

Energy derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly

Resilience

The ability of a system

Smog

A type of air pollution that is a mixture of smoke

Tailpipe emissions

Pollutants released into the atmosphere from the exhaust of vehicles

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

A federal agency of the United States responsible for protecting human health and the environment by enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress.