AP Psych Chapters 3 + 4: Nature vs. Nurture & Development

Behavior Genetics

Study of the relative effects of our genes (nature) and our environment (nurture) on our individual differences in behavior and mental processes.

Temperament

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

What makes genes “self regulating”?

They don’t automatically determine a facet of you; they react to different factors and can change (pliable).

What are the top 3 reasons for attraction and who theorized this?

David Buss:

1. Proximity: closeness, “exposure effect”

2. Similarity: more likely to fall in love with someone who is more similar to you than different.

3. Physical Attraction: hotness factor = happy

Why do men prefer physical attractiveness in partners?

Evolutionarily men gravitate towards younger, healthier mates who will facilitate our genes and pass them down to the next generation (fit).

Mobile Gene Machine

We are predisposed to prefer what worked for our ancestors.

The Pecking Order

1. Identical twins; same placenta

2. Identical twins; different placenta

3. Fraternal twins; same placenta

4. Fraternal Twins; different placenta

5. Full siblings

6. Half siblings

7. Cousins

What did two psychologists propose about rats that were stimulated vs. impoverished?

Rozenweig & Kreich:

Brains of rats that were stimulated and brought up in an enriched environment were larger and stronger (more activity) than impoverished, neglected rats.

What happens to neuron activation when you train the brain to do a task?

More neurons activate since they are stimulated more often and have lots of practice and use

Culture

Enduring behaviors, attitudes, ideas, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed down generations.

Norms

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism:

• independent, uniqueness, rights, liberties, change reality,

• many relationships often at a casual level, and behavior usually reflects personality and attitude of oneself.

Collectivism:

• Interdependent, harmony, maintain connections, the whole matters more than individual parts, solidarity

• Few relationships often very close and enduring and behavior reflects social norms and roles.

The “nature” of gender…

X vs Y chromosomes, sex chromosomes, biological sex, hormones, testosterone vs estrogen.

What determines the sex of the baby in the mother’s womb?

If a lot of testosterone is released while the fetus is developing then the baby will be male and develop male genitalia and if there are lower levels, the baby will develop female genitalia.

Social Learning Theory

Theory that proposes that we learn gender behavior like any other behavior; through reinforcement, punishment, and ostentation.

Gender Schema Theory

Suggests that we learn a cultural “recipe” of how to be a male or female, which influences our gender-based perceptions and behaviors.

Developmental Psychology

Examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across our lifespan.

What is the order of prenatal development?

1. zygote: fertilized egg until 14 days…

2. embryo: 2 weeks - 2 months; organs form

3. fetus: 9 weeks; facial features, looks human

4. newborn

Teratogen

Chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.

Ex: HIV/AIDS, Alcohol → FAS, and Heroin & other drugs.

Leading cause of MR (brain abnormalities).

Competent Newborn

Not totally helpless, born usefully equipped with tools for survival called reflexes. Notably, crying for attention is an example; call to attention/need for something.

What are the feeding reflexes?

Rooting, sucking, and swallowing.

Startle Reflex

Cry and curl up when scared.

Grasping Reflex

Cling to an adult’s finger or any object.

Stepping Reflex

“Dangling” feet.

Social Responsiveness

Turn head towards human voices, look at faces, and preferring the smell of mother (nurture).

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. Newborns become bored with a repeated stimulus, but renew their attention to a slightly different stimulus.

Growth from Infancy to Childhood

Infancy: newborn → toddler

Childhood: toddler → teen

During these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.

Maturation

Unfolds based on genetics and experience adjusts it.

Motor Development

6 months: infant sits unsupported

8-10 months: crawl

1 year: walk

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

The driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experience with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make.

Assimilation

Interpreting one’s new experiences in terms of existing schema (any 4 legged animal is a dog; all babies know).

Accomodation

Adapting one’s current understanding to incorporate new info (4 legged animal is a cat if it meows).

Egocentrism

Inability of a child to perceive another’s POV.

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas of their own and others mental states; about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

What did Piaget Believe?

Cognitive development is a way of adapting to our environment. Children go through a series of stages. Things are learned in each of these stages.

Main Idea: theories help understand how children think and learn

Criticisms of Piaget

Baby Mathematics (shows more nature in cognition than nurture).

Development is not always progressing in steps, gradual progress is made based on practice and experiences, gift giving discredits egocentrism, and exposure to technology may influence the development of cognitive abilities.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (B-2): learning through the senses (touch, sight, hearing) and learn object permanence, stranger anxiety, assimilation, and ~1 word (talking).

2. Preoperational (2-6): representing things with words and images, but lacking logical reason; pretend play, egocentrism, language development, and accommodation.

3. Concrete Operations (7-11): thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies, and performing arithmetic operations; conservation, and mathematical transformations.

4. Formal Operations (12-adult): Abstract reasoning; abstract logic, potential for moral reasoning.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of strangers that children usually experience beginning at 8 months.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon separation.

• Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiment

Imprinting

Primitive bond in some animals developed during the critical period.

What does Deprivation of Attachment cause?

Withdrawn, frightened, and speech disabled children.

Secure vs. Insecure Attachment

Secure: comforted by caretaker, get sad when they leave.

Insecure: mistrustk, anxiety, and crying even with the mother present.

What is the #1 achievement of infancy?

Attachment → Self concept: sense of one’s identity and personal worth; self awareness.

Child Rearing Practices

Authoritative (middle ±): BEST firm structure & guidance, not overly controlling, listens to child’s opinions, explain decisions, but are clearly in charge → self-reliant socially responsible children.

Permissive: too little control over children lacks discipline, enablers → overly independent lacking self-control.

Authoritarian: control behavior rigidly, strict obedience → withdrawn and distrustful children.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Reasoning

1. Preconventional (Pre-adolescent): “right” vs “wrong” behavior based on if it’s rewarded or punished. Make judgements based upon concrete consequences.

2. Conventional (Adolescence): Start to consider others’ feelings and put yourself in their shoes. Respect for authority & social order.

   1. Postconventional: develop a sense of moral standards → Justice, liberty, equality. Is stealing to feed your starving, poor family morally wrong?

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Stages of Reasoning

Some individuals are just selfish naturally and some people are influenced by cultural and sexual biases.

What part of brain development occurs during adolescence?

Selective pruning to make neurons more efficient.

Cognitive Changes & Adolescent Egocentrism

Concrete Operations (childhood + simple) → Formal Operations (adolescence + abstract)

David Elkind → Abstract thought = sometimes delusional.

Imaginary Audience: idea that you are constantly observed by others and are always “on stage”. Leads to showing off and self consciousness.

Personal Fable: dolescents believe that they are unique, very important, & invincible. Leads to recklessness and risk-taking

What are the focuses of each age group in Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development?

1. Infancy: trust vs. mistrust

2. Toddlerhood: autonomy vs. shame & doubt

3. Preschooler: Initiative vs. guilt

4. Elementary: competence vs. inferiority

5. Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion

6. Young Adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation

7. Middle Adulthood: generativity vs. stagnation

8. Late Adulthood: integrity vs. despair

What is an Identity Crisis and who came up with the term?

James Marcia; period of intense self-examination and decision-making leading to “finding yourself” including 4 statuses.

What are the 4 statuses of an Identity Crisis?

1. Moratorium: in the middle of the IC, but stopping to explore something they may want to pursue.

2. Identity Achievement: passed through crisis and succeeded in finding themself.

3. Identity Diffusion: upset with present decision and are unable to make a new identity → leads to risk-taking activities.

4. Foreclosure: settled on an identity provided to them by others; never goes through IC.

Fluid vs. Crystalline Memory

Ability to reason quickly vs. accumulated knowledge.

Longitudinal vs. cross section studies

Comparing 1 person or group over time vs. comparing different groups at different times.