Pre-AP Biology Second Semester Final Review

Flashcards for Pre-AP Biology Second Semester Final Review

P generation

The first generation of organisms in a genetic cross.

F1 generation

The first generation of offspring in a genetic cross.

F2 generation

The second generation of offspring in a genetic cross.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene.

Dominant and recessive traits

Traits that mask other traits and traits that are hidden unless no dominant allele is present.

Probability

The likelihood of an event occurring.

Homozygous, dominant and recessive

Having two identical alleles for a trait (dominant or recessive).

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a trait.

Phenotype

Physical characteristics of an organism.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism.

Punnett square

A chart that shows all possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross.

Principle/law of independent assortment

Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

Principle/law of segregation

Allele pairs separate during gamete formation.

Codominance

Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype.

Incomplete dominance

One allele is not completely dominant over the other, resulting in a blended phenotype.

Environmental factors and genetics

Environmental conditions can affect gene expression and influence genetically determined traits.

Sex chromosomes/gametes

Chromosomes that determine sex (X and Y) and reproductive cells containing one set of chromosomes.

Haploid

Having one set of chromosomes.

Diploid

Having two sets of chromosomes.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes .

Spindle fibers

Microtubules that help separate chromosomes during cell division.

Crossing over

Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis

DNA

A molecule that carries the genetic instructions for all living organisms.

Purines

Double-ringed nitrogenous bases (adenine and guanine).

Pyrimidines

Single-ringed nitrogenous bases (cytosine, thymine, and uracil).

Chargaff base pairing rules

A=T and C=G

Rosalind franklin

Used X-ray diffraction to discover the double helix structure of DNA.

Watson and Crick

Developed the double helix model of DNA.

DA double helix

The structure of DNA composed of two strands that wind around each other.

DNA replication

The process of copying DNA.

Dna is semiconservative

Each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one new strand.

DNA is complementary

The sequence of one strand determines the sequence of the other strand.

Role of enzymes in DNA replication

Enzymes such as DNA polymerase and ligase play key roles in DNA replication.

RNA

A type of nucleic acid that carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes.

mRNA

RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.

rRNA

RNA molecule that is a structural component of ribosomes.

tRNA

RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Transcription

The process of making RNA from a DNA template.

RNA base pairing rules

A=U and C=G

Translation

The process of making a protein from an RNA template.

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins.

Codons

A sequence of three nucleotides that codes for an amino acid.

Anticodons

A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that is complementary to a codon on mRNA.

Differentiation

The process by which cells become specialized.

Gene mutations point mutation

A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.

Silent mutation

A mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence.

Missense mutation

A mutation that changes the amino acid sequence.

Nonsense mutations

A mutation that introduces a stop codon.

Frameshift mutation

A mutation that shifts the reading frame.

Genome

The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.

Karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

Chromosome number

The number of chromosomes in a cell.

Autosomes

Non-sex chromosomes.

Sex chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine sex.

sex-linked disorders and inheritance

Disorders caused by genes located on sex chromosomes.

Carrier

An individual who carries a recessive allele for a genetic disorder but does not show symptoms of the disorder.

pedigree

A chart that shows the inheritance of a trait in a family.

Biotechnology

The use of living organisms to develop or make products.

PCR

A technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA.

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.

Transgenic organism

An organism that contains genes from another organism.

CRISPR

A technology that can be used to edit genes.

Clone

An organism or cell produced asexually from one ancestor or stock, to which they are genetically identical.

Genetically modified organisms

Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.

Genetic testing

The analysis of a person's DNA to identify genetic predispositions to diseases.

Gene therapy

The insertion of genes into a person's cells to treat a disease.

Prokaryotes vs eukaryotic cells

Cells without a nucleus and cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Plant cell vs animal cell

Cells with a cell wall and chloroplasts versus cells without these structures.

Cytoplasm

The material or protoplasm within a living cell, excluding the nucleus.

Nucleus

A membrane-bound organelle that contains the genetic material.

Nuclear envelope

The double-layered membrane enclosing the nucleus of a cell.

Nucleoid

A region within a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is located.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis.

Smooth ER

Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes.

Rough ER

Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

Vacuoles

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Vesicles

Small membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within the cell.

Lysosomes

Cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell.

Chloroplast

Organelle found in plant cells that converts solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

Mitochondria

Cell organelle that converts the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use.

Cell wall

A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell.

Cell membrane

A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell

Semipermeable

Membrane that allows certain molecules or ions to pass through it by means of active or passive transport.

Phospholipid

A lipid containing a phosphate group in its molecule

Diffusion

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Facilitated diffusion

The diffusion of molecules across a membrane with the help of transport proteins.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Active transport

The movement of materials against a concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Exocytosis

The process by which a cell releases large amounts of material.

Endocytosis

The process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane.

Levels of organization

The different levels of organization in a multicellular organism including cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Cells surface area vs volume

The ratio between the surface area and volume of the cell.

Asexual and sexual reproduction

Reproduction involving one parent and reproduction involving two parents.

Prokaryotic cell division - binary fission

A type of asexual reproduction in which a prokaryotic cell divides into two identical cells.

Cell cycle

The regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo.

Interphase

The period of the cell cycle between cell divisions.

Gap 1

The first gap phase of interphase, during which the cell grows.

S phase

The synthesis phase of interphase, during which DNA is replicated.

Gap 2

The second gap phase of interphase, during which the cell prepares for division.