Chapter One: Late Imperial Russia 1894-1905

How much land did Imperial Russia cover in 1894?

Over 8 million square miles

What were the dimensions of Imperial Russia in 1894?

5000 miles by 2000 miles

What was the Russian population in 1815?

40 million

What was the Russian population in 1914?

160 million

Since when had the Romanovs ruled Russia?

1613

When did Nicholas I issue the “Fundamental laws of the Empire”?

1832

What was Article I of the “Fundamental Laws of the Empire”?

It stated that “The Emperor of all the Russias is an autocratic and unlimited monarch”

What was the European part of Russia?

Poland to the Urals

Where were Russia’s principal cities located? What were they?

Moscow and St Petersburg were located in European Russia

What were the bodies which the Tsar used to exercise his authority? How much power did they have?

The Imperial Council, the Cabinet of Ministers and the Senate. They had little power, being appointed instead of elected, and advising rather than governing. They had no power over the Tsar, who held absolute authority

Who were reforming Tsars?

Peter I (1682-1725), Catherine II (1762-96) and Alexander II (1855-1881)

When were the serfs emancipated?

1861

What was still illegal in 1894?

Opposing the Tsar or his government. There was no parliament and any political parties that did exist had no legal rights to

Who often infiltrated secret societies dedicated to reform or opposition?

The Okhrana (secret police)

Were there still liberal views in Russia?

Yes, but they had to go underground

When was Alexander II assassinated and who by?

Assassinated in 1881 by “The People’s Will”

What was the main religion of Russia?

Orthodox Christianity

What was the Orthodox Church in Russia like?

Highly conservative, opposing political change and attempting to preserve the Tsarist system which opposed progressive change

How close was the Church to the Russian people?

Very detached. In Moscow in 1900, one suburb had one priest for 40,000 people

How did the Church view the Tsar?

As anointed by God. The catechism said that “God commands us to love and obey from the inmost recesses of our heart every authority, and particularly the Tsar”

What percentage of the Russian population were ruling class?

0.5%

What percentage of the Russian population were upper class?

12%

What percentage of the Russian population were working class?

4%

What percentage of the Russian population were commercial class?

1.5%

What percentage of the Russian population were agricultural peasants?

82%

Which countries had achieved major industrial growth?

Germany, Britain and USA

What made industrialism and entrepeneurialism difficult in Russia?

Absence of effective banking system and a developed transportation system, Russia found it hard to raise capital. It didn’t know how to borrow and invest well, making the economy sluggish and industrialist expansion highly difficult

What type of economy did Russia have?

It had an agrarian economy which failed to develop because of the lack of fertile land in Russia. Much of it was too far north to have the climate or soil to grow crops or rear cattle, and arable farming was limited to the Black Earth region

What were the issues with land from 1861?

Serfs were emancipated, meaning they were allowed to buy land but it was too expensive due to taxes (to raise compensation for landowners who had lost their serfs) and shortages of fertile farmland. Therefore the peasants were hit with heavy mortgage repayments that burdened and made them unhappy

What problem did the peasantry pose?

The presence of an uneducated, poor, debt ridden peasantry suspicious of change pointed to the backwardness of Russia. Attempts to educate them had been undermined by the ruling class as it was “safe” to keep them ignorant so they don’t become politically aware or more valuable

How was the military used to control the population?

The threat of conscription for law-breakers was terrifying for the population

How many soldiers died during Nicholas I’s reign (peacetime)?

Over 1 million

How many men were kept in the Imperial forces during the 19th Century?

1.5 million

What percentage of their money did the government spend on the army and navy?

45%

How did higher rank members of the army feel about Tsarism?

Wanted to preserve the aristocracy

Was the army based on a meritocracy?

No, there was no room for promotion due to merit and so the force was weakened, but this wasn’t a massive problem as Russia hadn’t been engaged in a major European conflict since 1815

Why was the civil service set up by Peter I?

To maintain central government control throughout the empire

Was the civil service fair?

No, it was a system of bureaucratic nepotism leading to incompetence, partly causing the backwardness in Russia

Who was Alexander Herzen?

He was a revolutionary who wrote in 1868, claiming that the bureaucratic civil service had become “a kind of civilian priesthood” - an elite rich group which abused its powers over taxation to advance themselves. Herzen said that Russia was “sucking the blood of the people with thousands of greedy, unclean mouths”

Which serious differences caused obstacles to reform?

“Westerners” believed in order to become great Russia would need to adopt features of countries in Western Europe. “Slavophiles” viewed the West as corrupt and wanted to preserve ‘holy Russia’

What were periods of reform often caused by?

They were often responses to humiliation, certainly for Alexander II, following the defeat in Crimea

What were the Zemstva?

A network of elected councils (rural) set up in 1864. Not truly democratic but they did provide a form of representative government

What were the intelligentsia?

A section of educated people who wanted to see progressive change in Russia. Encouraged to develop by Alexander II’s relaxation of control over press and universities

Why did Alexander II support reform?

To discourage revolution in the lower classes and attract the support of the intelligentsia - which he achieved through the emancipation, greater freedom for universities and press, and legal changes

What legal reforms did Alexander II make?

He tried to simplify court proceedings which led to corrupt injustice

Was Alexander II truly reformist?

He was still autocratic, wouldn’t let anyone compromise his (the Tsar’s) power. He eventually abandoned his reformist policies, which Alexander III continued

What set of measures were passed during Alexander III’s reign?

He passed “The Reaction”, which was a set of harsh restrictive policies imposed on the Russian people

What were the key measures in “the Reaction”

The Statute of State Security 1881
The University Statute 1887
The Zemstva Act 1890

What was the Statute of State Security 1881?

Part of “the Reaction” passed in 1881. Set up government controlled courts (outside the legal system). Sympathetic judges and magistrates removed. Powers of the Okhrana extended. Censorship of press tightened. Supposed to be temporary but basically lasted until 1917

What was the University Statute?

Part of “the Reaction” passed in 1887. It brought universities under strict government control

What was the Zemstva Act?

Part of “the Reaction” passed in 1890. Decreased power of Zemstva and gave government officials to intervene in them

Did Nicholas II continue Alexander’s repression?

Yes

How did the intelligentsia react to Nicholas II’s continuation of repression?

They were angered and motivated to critique the tsarist regime

Who was Konstantin Pobedonostsev?

Tutor of Nicholas II and chief minister from 1881 to 1905. Known as “the Grand Inquisitor” because of his repressive attitude. Dismissed the idea of a democratic and representative government, trial by jury, and free press. Behind many pogroms. Had great influence over Nicholas II

What was Russification?

Nicholas II continued Alexander III’s attitude with Russification. Restricted the influence of non-Russians. Russian made official first language, public office closed to those non fluent in it. Discrimination became open and institutionalised. State interfered with their religion, education and culture

How many measures against Jews were introduced under Russification?

Over 600. Main one was putting Jews in ghettoes or discreet districts

Who were the “Black Hundreds”?

A Russian conservative group which would make attacks on Jews

How did people react to Nicholas II’s policies?

Opposition became more organised - political parties forming - political and national groups became frustrated - 5 millions Jews alienated

What did Jews do in 1897?

They formed a revolutionary “Bund” (union)

Who was Sergei Witte?

Minister of finance 1893-1903, chief minister 1903-6. Sought to modernise Russia

Who was Peter Stolypin?

Chief minister 1906-11

When was the Great Spurt

1890s

What is private enterprise?

Economic activity organised by individuals or companies, not the government. Part of the cause of the Great Spurt, but that was also due to deliberate government policy

What did the Tsarist government want the Great spurt for?

They were motivated to improve their economy because they wanted to strengthen the military - so they could buy more guns, equipment and ships

What did Witte want to achieve?

He wanted to modernise the Russian economy to the point where it could compete with the West

how did Witte get advice on industrial planning?

He brought experts in industrialism from countries which had had an industrial revolution (engineers, managers) from France, Belgium, Britain, Germany, and Sweden

What did Witte view Russia as compared to Western europe?

He viewed it as the “handmaiden of states which are more developed economically”, and that it “has the right and the strength not to want to be the handmaiden”

What did Witte know Russia needed in order to industrialise?

He knew that Russia needed capital investment, and he secured this by negotiating large loans from abroad, and raising tax and interest rates within Russia. he also introduced protective tariffs and gave the Russia currency the gold standard. This was largely successful but it did increase the cost of living

What is the gold standard?

The system where a country’s currency has a fixed gold content, allowing it to be exchanged with other countries

What did Witte use a lot of the capital he raised on?

Building a railway system, introducing a transport revolution between 1881 and 1914

How many kilometres of railways were there in 1881 vs 1914?

21,230 in 1881 - 70,160 in 1914

What was the Trans-Siberian Railway?

A railway constructed between 1891 and 1916. 5770 miles long (going from Vladivostok to Moscow).Sections were still incomplete in 1916 though. Intended to aid east-west migration, but didn’t greatly achieve that. It was more a symbol of Russian enterprise

How did coal production change from 1890 to 1914?

Got over five times larger (5.9 - 33.8M tonnes per year)

How did pig iron production change from 1890 to 1914?

Got over four times larger (0.89 - 3.72M tonnes per year)

How did oil production change from 1890 to 1914?

Got 2.5 times larger (3.9 - 9.7M tonnes per year)

How did grain production change from 1890 to 1914? (European Russia)

Got 2 times larger (36 - 64M tonnes per year)

How much did Russia’s economy grow from 1898-1913?

96.8% (larger than many European countries, but was still behind them as they were starting from a much lower point)

What are three critiques of Witte’s reforms?

• Made Russia too dependent on foreign loans

• Prioritised heavy industry to the point of neglecting other vital areas

• Paid no attention to agricultural needs

What interfered with Witte’s railways?

Military commanders using them to mobilise Russia’s army rather than for their intended industrial use

Did the Russian court like Witte?

No, they were resistant to the change he wanted to put in place, therefore disliking him, even though his changes were intended to make an economy that would secure the position of the Tsar. therefore he seldom got the support that he needed from the government

Did people trust Witte?

No, he made enemies easily, and was not trusted by the people of the tsarist system. had he been supported Russia may have successfully achieved a peaceful modernisation

What were the two main groups who opposed the tsardom?

Reformers (critics of the tsarist system who believed improvement could be reached by applying pressure from outside and reform from inside) and Revolutionaries (those who thought the tsarist system had to be destroyed in order for Russia to move forwards)

When did populism start?

1870s

What class were Populist leaders?

Middle and upper

What did Populists believe in?

That the future of Russia was in the hands of the peasantry. They needed to lead the dismantling of the tsarist system and later transformation of Russia. Leaders believed they needed to “go to the people” to educate and revolutionise them

How did the peasantry view the Populist leaders that tried to educate them?

As airy-fairy thinkers with no knowledge of the real world

What was “The People’s Will”?

A group of desperate Populists who turned to terrorism to achieve their aims. Had about 400 members

When was “The People’s Will” formed?

1879

How did the assassination of Alexander II by “The People’s Will” affect the Populist cause?

Weakened it, as Alexander II passed many reforms in his reign, so his assassination discredited the idea of reform as something the population didn’t want. Also justified the repression of the population

Was the peasantry interested in revolution?

No, so the Populist idea was weak and unrealistic

What was Populism’s lasting effect?

Violent anti-tsarist measures became more of a tradition. Also influenced all the Russian revolutionaries after 1870

Where did the social Revolutionaries (SRs) come from?

They grew out of the Populists following the Great Spurt’s production of a more politically interested population

What was the difference in strategy between the SRs and The Populists?

The Populists viewed the peasantry as important, whereas the SRs viewed anyone who had reasons to wish for the end of the tsarist system as the part of the population that truly represented Russia

Who was Victor Chernov?

He was a member of the intelligentsia who played a key role in the formation of the SR Party in 1901, reshaping Populist strategy to provide a firmer foundation than their previously vague ideas

Was there dispute inside of the SR?

Yes, it was divided heavily into “Left Social Revolutionaries” and “Right Social Revolutionaries” according to Leon Trotsky

What was the difference between the Left and Right SRs?

The ;eft had grown from “The People’s Will” so used terror tactics to achieve their goals, but the right was more moderate, willing to negotiate and cooperate with other parties in order to create the best conditions for the workers and peasasts

Which side of the SR dominated between 1901 and 1905?

The Left (terrorist side)

How many people did the SR assassinate between 1901 and 1905? Who are the most notable people assassinated?

The SR killed over 2000 political figures. Notably Vyacheslav Plehve (the interior minister) and Grand Duke Sergei (the tsar’s uncle)

What happened to the SR following the 1905 revolution?

It gained more liberals than revolutionaries, and so the right side became more influential over the party

Who began to support the SR from 1906?

The professional classes, trade unions and the All-Russian Union of Peasants (set up in 1905)