Memory

(Week 8)

memory

memory

the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.

encoding

the input of information into the memory system

Automatic processing

encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words; usually done without any conscious awareness.

Effortful processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

Semantic encoding

encoding of words and their meaning

Visual encoding

the encoding of images

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sounds, words in particular

self-reference effect

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Recoding

taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it

Storage

the creation of a permanent record of information.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model

we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information; 3 steps: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Baddeley and Hitch Model

storing memories in short-term memory depends on the type of information received; there are memories in visual-spatial form and spoken or written material, and they are stored in three short-term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop; a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from these systems

Sensory memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes; lasts up to a couple of seconds

Short-term memory

temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; (also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used

Working memory

sensory memory is a component of it

Rehearsal

moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory

active rehearsal

a way of attending to information to move it from short-term to long-term memory; you repeat (practice) the information to be remembered and if done enough, it may be moved into long-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal

the act of linking new information you are trying to learn to existing information that you already know.

Memory trace decay

During decay, the memory trace becomes less activated over time, and the information is forgotten

Proactive interference

previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information

Long-Term memory

the continuous storage of information (explicit and implicit)

Semantic network

Associative networks in which memories are organized; differ depending on personal experiences

spreading activation

activating any part of a semantic network also activates the concepts linked to that part to a lesser degree

Explicit memory

Memories we consciously try to remember, recall, and report; is declarative because it can be put into words (episodic and semantic)

Episodic memory

information about events we have personally experienced; usually reported as a story; the what, where, and when of an event; recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity

semantic memory

knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts; typically reported as facts.

Implicit memory

long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness; learned outside of our awareness and cannot be consciously recalled, but are demonstrated in the performance of some task; cannot be put into words (procedural, priming, emotional conditioning)

Procedural memory

stores information about the way to do something; the memory for skilled actions

priming and emotional conditioning

Priming: stimulus exposure affects responses to a later stimulus

Emotional conditioning: classically conditioned emotional responses

Retrieval

The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness

Available and accessible info

available info: the information that is stored in memory—but precisely how much and what types are stored cannot be known

Accessible info: information we can retrieve (which is said to be a sliver of what’s available)

Encoding specificity principle

hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace.

Cue overload principle

to be effective, a retrieval cue cannot be overloaded with too many memories

Recall

accessing information without cues (open-ended questions)

recognition

when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again (Multiple-choice test)

relearning

learning information that you previously learned

recognition failure of recallable words

a cue will be most effective depending on how the information has been encoded

testing effect or the retrieval practice effect

the act of retrieval itself (of a fact, concept, or event) makes the retrieved memory much more likely to be retrieved again

retrieval-induced forgetting

retrieving some information can actually cause us to forget other information related to it

Engram

the group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory.”

Arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

Flashbulb memory

an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

Forgetting

loss of information from long-term memory.

Transience

memories can fade over time

Absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

Blocking

inability to access stored information; tip of the tongue phenomenon

Misattribution

when you confuse the source of your information; creation of false memories

Suggestibility

A false memory that comes from someone else

Bias

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

Stereotypical: race and gender

Egocentric: enhancing our memories of the past; making ourselves look better

Hindsight: when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact; “I knew it all along”

Persistence

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones

Proactive interference

when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

retroactive interference

when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.

Construction

formulation of new memories

reconstruction

process of bringing up old memories

Misinformation effect paradigm

after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event.

False memory syndrome

Recall of false autobiographical memories

Chunking

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

Mnemonic devices

memory aids that help us organize information for encoding

Acronym: word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember

Acrostic: make a phrase of all the first letters of the words

Jingles: rhyming tunes that contain keywords related to the concept

peg word technique

form a vivid image of what you want to remember and imagine it interacting with your peg words

Levels of processing theory

To remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful

Distributed practice

Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once