Sports Science Option A

Training

Performing exercise

• In an organised manner

• On a regular basis

• With a specific goal in mind

Overtraining

• Attempt to do more training than can physically or mentally tolerate.

• Training at an intensity that is too high for a prolonged period of time

Overreaching

• Transient overtraining

• Pushing body beyond limits for a short period of time to stimulate training response

Methods of training

• Flexibility Training

• Strength and Resistance training

• Circuit training

• Interval training

• Plyometrics

• Continuous training

• Fartlek training

• Cross training

Flexibility training

• Stretching of muscles and tendons

• To help improve range of motion

• Improving performance and reducing risk of injury

• Types: Static, dynamic, passive, PNF

Strength & Resistance Training (weight training)

• Application of resistance against muscle contractions

• Increase the strength, size or power or endurance of skeletal muscle

• Forms of resistance = gravity, body weight, rubber bands, weights

Circuit Training

• Periods of work and rest

• Used to build a wide variety of components of fitness

• Predominantely anaerobic energy system

• Each exercise completed for a set amount of time

Interval Training

• Repeated bouts of high/near maximal intensity exercise intervals

• Interspersed by periods of lower intensity

• Used in cardiovascular exercise (eg. swimming, running, cycling)

Plyometrics

• Performing a series of jumping and bounding movements

• Rapid eccentric muscle action → immediate concentric muscle action

• Fast, powerful, short duration

• Designed to increase speed and power

Continuous Training

• Period of exercise completed without breaks

• Completed at a steady/set pace throughout duration

• Continuously doing the same exercise - continuous build up

• Aerobic energy system (>20 mins)

Fartlek Training

• Combination of interval and continuous training

• Varying pace or terrain

• Slower pace used to recover for high intensity work

Cross training

• Involves more than one type of training multiple fitness groups within the same session

• Training multiple fitness components, areas of the body and muscle groups

Possible indicators of overtraining

• Change in resting heart rate

• Chronic muscle soreness

• Reduced immune function and frequently sick

• Sleep disturbance

• Fatigue

• Decreased appetite

• Sudden, unexplained decrease in performance

Periodisation

• A structured organised approach to training (optimise performance and avoid overtraining + injury)

• 3 phases = preparation (pre-season), competition (in-season), transition (post-season/off-season)

• Types of cycle = macro, meso, micro

Seasons

• Pre-season: Develop basic fitness and physical conditioning

• In-season: Competitive season, maintain physical condition, improving sport specific skills and technique, perfecting tactic and gaining competition experience

• Off-season: Mentally + physically fatigued due to in-season, recover, rest while maintaining acceptable level of physical fitness

Microcycle

• Weekly training program including all training and recovery sessions

• Each training has a specific goal that contributes to overall goal of training phase

Mesocycle

• Specific block of training designed to achieve a specific goal

• Each training phase cointains multiple mesocycles

• Made up of microcycles

Macrocyle

• Entire year (or season)

• Start with planning the goals of macrocycle, working towards more specific mesocycle and microcycle goals

Relationship between cellular metabolism and production of heat in the body

• Cellular metabolism = all chemical reactions taking place within the body

• Catabolic reaction releases heat as a by product

• 60% of energy derived from break of ATP is lost in form of heat

• Heat must be removed from the body to avoid increase in body temperature

• More exercise = increased ATP production = more heat produced

Normal physiological range for core body temperature

37 ± 0.6 degrees C

How the body thermoregulates in hot and cold environments

Conduction (direct contact)

• Heat generated deep in the body is conducted through body tissue to body’s surface in direct contact with skin.

• Rate of heat loss depends on temperature gradient between skin and surrounding surfaces

Convection (by air or fluid)

• Moving heat through motion of air or water movement

• Eg. blood transfers heat around body through convection

• Eg. High wind movement levels causes cold wind to replace warm air around body faster

Radiation (heat waves)

• Transfer of energy waves sent out from one object and absorbed by another

• Eg. body absorbs radiant heat energy when temperature of environment is higher than skin temperature

Evaporation (sweat - liquid to vapour)

• Evaporative cooling is the process of converting sweat from liquid to water vapour

• Surface or heat gets evaporated, letting the body cool down

• Main way for the body to lose heat during exercise

Cold: shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis, peripheral vasoconstriction

Heat: Sweating (earlier onset), vasodilation

Significance of humidity in relation to body heat loss

• When humidity is high, water pressure gradient between skin and air is decreased

• Decreases capacity of air to accept more water

• Reduces ability for sweat to evaporate + cooling affect as a result of heat loss

• Core temperature increases, causing negative effects on. physiological functions

• Leads to decreased performance

• Must stay hydrated as increased sweat = increased viscosity of blood = decreased stroke volume

Significance of wind in relation to body heat loss

• Convection = transferring heat from one place to another through movement of air

• More wind = more convection

• Therefore wind cools skin and speeds up evaporation, increasing cooling effect and heat loss

Formation of sweat process and sweat response

• Hypothalamus detects rise in body temperature

• Sympathetic nervous system activates sweat glands

• Plasma = source of sweat formation

• Clear watery liquid, 2 - 4 million produced in the sweat glands

• Produced in coil hollow glands in the dermis of the skin

• Passes through pores of the gland onto the skin surface

• Amount of sweat formed depends on individual, exercise intensity, acclimatisation, and hydration status

Physiological responses during prolonged exercise in the heat

• Elevated heart rate + increased viscosity of blood (decreased stroke volume) = cardiovascular drift

• Increased vasodilation to assist with cooling (through convection)

• Reduced blood volume due to excessive sweating = reduced cooling ability of circulating blood (convection)

• Reduced sweating response = increased core temperature

(Prolonged exercise = during one session)

Health risks associated with exercising in heat

• Heat related disorders: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke

  • Symptoms: Light headedness, high core body temp (>41 C), reduced sweating, dizzinees, fatigue, disorientation, seizing, comas

• Hyperthermia = core body temperature has risen dangerously high

• Factors that increase risk of heat tolerance: lack of acclimatisation, low fitness, large body mass, dehydration, age

• More susceptible: children, infants (immature sweat response), low aerobic fitness

Steps that should be taken to prevent + treat heat-related disorders

• Acclimatise - get used to temperature + humidity levels before competition (5-10 days before)

• Tapering - reduce intensity + duration of training leading up to competition

• Wearing lightweight, breathable clothing

• Wear light coloured clothing to reduce heat absorption

• Stop exercising

• Hydration

• Stretching/massaging

• Avoiding direct sunlight

• Set a cap for total daily exercise-time in the heat to 90-100 minutes

Physiological and metabolic adaptations that occur with heat acclimatisation

Improved blood flow

Increase plasma volume

Lower threshold for start of sweating

More effective distribution of sweat

Increased sweat output

Lower salt concentration

Increase rate of transportation of metabolic heat from deep tissues to body’s surface

To support increased sweat response

(Less viscous bloud)

Evaporative cooling begins earlier during exercise

Optimum use of surface area for evaporative cooling

Maximises evaporative cooling

Dilute sweat preserves electrolytes

(acclimatisation = over prolonged period of multiple days)

Physiological response in cold temperatures to maintain core temperature

• Hypothalamus detects decrease in core temperature

Peripheral vasoconstriction of skin and skeletal muscle circulation

Shivering - involuntary rhythmic muscle contractions

Non-shivering thermogenesis - Increase in the metabolic process

Decrease blood flow + convective heat transfer between body’s core and shell

Heat production from metabolic energy

Excess calories are used to produce heat instead of being stored as fat

Importance of body surface area-to-body mass ratio for heat preservation

Low surface

Short, squat body

Conserves heat

Overheat quickly in hot environments

High surface

Tall, slim body

Lose heat quickly

Not the best for cold environments

Importance of wind chill in relation to body heat loss

• Large difference between cold felt on cold calm day vs cold windy day

• Wind increases rate of heat loss via conduction and convection

• Warm insulating air layer surrounding our body is continually exchanged with cooler ambient air (from wind)

Why does swimming in cold water present a challenge to the body’s ability to thermoregulate?

Swimming in cold water causes:

• Intense vasoconstriction (Redistribution of blood to core)

• Reduced blood flow to limbs

• Heat is conducted away from body faster

• Greater convective heat loss

Physiological response to exercise in the cold

Metabolic

- Depletion of glycogen stored

- Shivering increases glycogen breakdown

- More energy required

Muscle Function

- More muscle fibres needed to maintain same work rate

- Shivering

- Muscles become weaker

Health risks of exercising in the cold

• Hypothermia (<35 degrees C)

• Frostbite - as extreme peripheral vasoconstriction effects most distals body parts (toes, fingers, ears, nose)

Precautions to take when exercising in the cold

• Insulation through clothing (insulating effect reduces when clothes become wet)

• Stay dry

• Hands and face covered to prevent frostbite

• Stay hydrated

Definition of ergogenic aid

Any substance, phenomenon, or device that improves an athlete’s performance.

5 classes of non-nutritional ergogenic aids currently banned by WADA and IOC

• Anabolic steroids

• Hormones (EPOs and HGH)

• Diuretics + masking agents

• Beta Blockers

• Stimulants

Why are pharmacological substances banned

• Unfair advantage

• Moral obligation to compete fairly

• Health + safety issues

Placebo effect

• An ineffective intervention having an effect due to the particpant believing they have received a beneficial treatment

• Used to evaluate whether observed effect is a result of treatment or psychological effect

• Substance/pill that in every way looks like the real substance being investigated

• Blinding + double blinding helps determine causation

Anabolic Steroids - benefits, and harmful effects

Benefits

• Mimics effect of testosterone and builds muscle tissue

• Decreases recovery time - lower body fat + increased muscle mass

Harmful effects

• Heart problems + increased risk of coronary heart disease

• Reduced sperm count in men

• Oily hair and skin + excessive acne

• Mood swings (roid rage)

Hormones (EPOs)

Benefits

• Increased oxygen carrying capacity of blood (Increased RBC production)

• Increased performance

• Increased aerobic capacity

Harmful effects

• Increased blood viscocity due to increased red blood cell count

• Strokes, heart failure, heart attacks

Diuretics + Masking Agents

Benefit

• Excrete water for rapid weight loss (to meet weight category in weight class sports)

• Athletes who believe lighter weight will benefit performance (dance, gymnastics)

• Flush out other illegal substances

Harmful effects

• Hinder body’s ability to thermoregulate

• Increases electrolyte loss

Beta blockers

Benefits

• Reduce tremors/shaking in sports where steady hand is needed

• Reduces anxiety

• Increases concentration + precision

• Decrease in heart rate

Harmful effects

• Cardiac failure from abnormally low heart rate

• Fatigue + dizziness

• Drop in blood pressure

Stimulants (coffee)

Benefits

• Improved alertness and concentration

• Low cost + easily accessible

• Reduced fatigue

• Increased energy levels, endurance and strength

Harmful effects

• Insomnia → fatigue

• Dehydration

• Headaches

• Problems with calcium levels + risk of cancer