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Memory
learning that has persisted over time
Flashbulb memories
emotionally significant memories (9/11)
Encoding
getting information in
Storage
keeping information over time
Retrieval
getting information out
Memory process
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding
Effortful processing
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition
Maintenance rehearsal: Keeping information in memory as long as you are rehearsing it (phone number)
Elaborative rehearsal
trying to make information meaningful so you retain it (trying to memorize phone number for good)
Next in-line effect
forget what the person in front of you says because you are focusing on yourself
Spacing effect
we learn information better when we rehearse it over time rather than cram it
Serial position effect
we remember the first and the last things better than the middle
Primacy effect
remembering the first
Recency effect
remembering the last
Acoustic encoding
sounds, words
Semantic encoding
encoding by meaning—WORKS THE BEST
Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart)
deeper levels of analysis lead to better comprehension (Ex
Self-reference effect
finding personal meaning in something
Rosy retrospection
people recall things more positively than they evaluated them at the time (six flags)
Chunking
organizing info into groups
Mnemonic devices
memory aids (ROYGBIV)
Method of loci
remembering things by giving them location
Peg-word system
relating words with something you know (one is bun, two is shoe…)
Sensory memory---Short-term memory--- Long-term memory
Sensory memory
lasts only for a second
Iconic memory
for visual things
Echoic memory
for auditory things
Short term/ working memory
holds about 7 items (+/- 2); must keep rehearsing it or it gets lost
Long-term memory
can hold as many as you want
Long-term potentiation
When the same neurons fire, it causes the memories to strengthen
Recall
retrieve information; essay, fill in the blank
Recognition: identify as in multiple choice
Retrieval cues
weather, smells, or any other reminder
Déjà vu
the sense that you have experienced something before because you have retrieval cues from the past experience
Priming
opening up associations Examples
Context effects
we retrieve information when we are in an environment similar to the one we encoded the information in
State-dependent learning
we remember info when we are in the same state of mind as when we learned it (intoxicated)
Mood congruent theory
we remember things that are consistent with our mood (if we are happy, we think of happy memories)
Encoding failure
we don't encode something properly, age disrupts encoding
Storage decay
Memories weaken over time when they are not used; Ebbinghaus…forgetting curve…we forget a lot at first and it levels off over time
Types of retrieval failure
Proactive interference, Retroactive interference, Anterograde (prograde) amnesia, & Retrograde amnesia
Proactive interference
something you learned earlier disrupts something you experience later (old address gets in way of remembering new one)
Retroactive interference
new information makes it hard to remember old (new locker combination makes it hard to remember your old one) video
Anterograde (Prograde) amnesia
Can’t form new memories since accident
Retrograde amnesia
Can’t remember things before an accident
Episodic memory: memory for a specific event or episode (your 5th birthday)
Prospective memory
“remember to go to store…”, your to do list
Infantile Amnesia: inability to remember episodic memories before ages of around 2-4
Implicit memory
procedural memory, knowing how to do something (cerebellum and amygdala)
Explicit memory: declarative memory, facts, knowing that you know how to do something (hippocampus)
Positive transfer
knowing old information helps us learn new (knowing Latin helps us learn French)
Source amnesia or source misattribution
attributing an event to the wrong source, forgetting the context you learned it in (writers)
Misinformation effect (Elizabeth Loftus)
we add misleading information into our memory of an event (car smashing…)
concepts
mental groups of events, ideas, or people (chair)
Prototype
the best example for a category (robin, not a penguin for a bird)
Algorithm
step by step procedure that GUARANTEES an answer (try every key on a key ring)
Heuristic
a short cut to solve the problem…faster, but does not guarantee answer (choose key based on size)
Confirmation bias
we look for information that confirms what we already think (boys are more aggressive)
Fixation
the inability to see something from a fresh perspective (connecting the dots)
Functional fixedness
think of things only in terms of their normal uses (two string problem) Matchbox problem
Mental set
type of fixation…approaching problem in a particular way—usually one that has worked in the past
Representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it represents or matches what you think (reads a lot, so he must be a professor, not a truck driver)
Availability heuristic
estimating likelihood of events based on how available they are in our mind (crime rates, diseases)
Gambler's fallacy
heuristic for thinking the likelihood of something has changed when in reality it stays the same (flipping a coin)
Overconfidence
we overestimate the accuracy of our thoughts
Wolfgang Kohler
chimps with bananas…shows insight
Divergent thinking
brainstorming, thinking of possible answers
Convergent thinking
narrowing down choices
Framing
the way an issue is posed affects judgment (75 percent lean/25 percent fat)
Belief perseverance
tendency to cling to your belief even after evidence proves you wrong (being stubborn)
Intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Factor analysis
identifies clusters of related items on tests (reading ability, math, etc…)
General intelligence, G factor
if someone does well on one area, they are likely to do well on another (Charles Spearman)
Howard Gardner
Theory of multiple intelligences; Thought intelligence comes in different ways; Chart of intelligences
Robert Sternberg
triarchic theory (for real world/business success)
Analytical intelligence
academic problem solving
Creative intelligence
reacting and adapting to situations
Practical intelligence
everyday tasks
Alfred Binet
created tests for school kids
Mental age
the age that corresponds to the level a kid is on (5 year old works at a 10 year old level)
Stanford Binet Test
intelligence test that was revised after Binet died
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
mental age/chronological age * 100
Average is 100
Worked better for kids, not adults
Now IQ is just test score compared to everyone else
Aptitude tests
predicts future performance (college entrance exam)
Achievement tests
measure what a person has learned (chapter test, final)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
MOST WIDELY USED intelligence test; Contains verbal and performance parts
Standardization
measure scores by comparing them with a sample group and using same measures
Normal curve
bell shaped curve…most scores fall around the average
Flynn effect
intelligence scores are improving
Reliability
must have consistent results (you should get around the same score every time you take it)
Validity
the test measures what it is supposed to
Content validity
measures the behavior it is supposed to
Predictive validity
predicts behavior it is supposed to
Intellectual disability (formerly known as mental retardation)
limited mental ability, IQ of less than 70, adaptive behavior is below level to live independently
Down syndrome
an extra chromosome causes retardation and physical problems, more common in males
Savant syndrome
person is limited in mental ability but has an exceptional skill (like computing or drawing)