Research Methods in Psychology - Chapters 1-4 Exam Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key definitions, concepts, claim types, validities, research methods, and ethical principles from Chapters 1-4.

Empiricism

Basing belief on empirical evidence.

Empirical Evidence

Evidence from observation rather than intuition or feelings.

Quantitative Research

turns empirical observations into numbers.

Qualitative Research

creates rich descriptions not simplified into numbers.

Reflexivity

Scientists self-consciously consider how their background or privilege shapes what questions they ask and what interpretations they make.

Theory

A set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another.

Hypothesis

Predictions about the outcomes of your research based on theory.

Preregistration

A term referring to a study in which, before collecting any data, the researcher has to state publicly what the study's hypotheses are.

False Hearing

When you believe you heard someone say one thing but they actually said another; the rate of false hearing increases with similar-sounding words.

Studies Don't Prove Theories

Science progresses over the long run and theories gain support from evidence, but one single study cannot prove the truthfulness of a theory.

Criteria for a Good Theory

A good theory must be supported by data consistently, be falsifiable, and be parsimonious.

Peer-Reviewed Journals

Publications where a journal sends an article to 2 to 4 other scientists to critically evaluate it before authors respond to criticisms for publication.

Basic Research

Searching for knowledge for the sake of knowing without considering real-world application, which often leads to applied research.

Applied Research

Searching for knowledge to find a solution to a real-world problem, where the main goal is a real-world application.

Four Ways to Form Beliefs

Experiences, intuition, trusted authority, and empirical research.

Confounds

Potential alternative explanations for a research finding and a threat to internal validity; a variable that influences the dependent variable beyond the independent variable.

Heuristics

Problem-solving approaches that are not necessarily optimized but are 'good enough', such as the availability heuristic.

Bias Blind-Spot

The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning.

Empirical Journal Articles

Scholarly articles that report for the first time the results of a research study.

Literature Review Journal Articles

Articles summarizing all the studies published in one area, using meta-analysis to numerically combine results from many studies on the same topic.

Edited Book

A collection of chapters on a common topic, each written by different authors and invited by editors, though not peer-reviewed.

Components of an Empirical Journal Article

Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, and References.

Avoiding Disinformation in Journalism

Practicing click restraint, using lateral reading to check claims on alternative legitimate sources, and assessing the quality of the underlying study.

Variable

Something that varies or changes and needs to have at least two levels or values.

Constant

Something that does not vary.

Measured Variable

A variable whose levels (values) are observed and recorded (dependent variable).

Manipulated Variable

A variable whose levels (values) are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable).

Levels of a Variable

The specific values a variable can take, which may be numeric with infinite/finite values or consist of finite distinct levels.

Measured Variables (Observation)

Variables that are observed rather than created by the experimenter, such as height, demographics, or GPA.

Manipulated Variables (Induced)

Variables created by assigning participants to conditions, such as different medication groups, therapy types, or item difficulties.

Construct

The name of the theoretical concept being studied (e.g., anxiety, listening effort, working memory), requiring careful conceptual definitions.

Operational Definition

A specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable (e.g., pupil size changing to show listening effort).

Example Variable: Fiction vs. Nonfiction

A variable representing media categories such as Movies or Books.

Example Variable: 10mg, 20mg, 30mg

A variable representing Medication Dosage.

Can 'Favorite Color' be a Manipulated Variable?

No, favorite color is an observed characteristic and cannot be manipulated by an experimenter.

Memory Retrieval (Construct vs. Operationalized)

Memory retrieval is a construct, because it still requires a specific operationalized method to be measured.

Claim

An argument that someone is trying to make.

Frequency Claims

Claims that describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable, based on measured variables.

Association Claims

Claims about at least two variables in which the value of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable.

Correlational Studies

- a study of two or more variables, in which all of the variables are measured

- Correlation does not equal Causation! (as X changes so does Y) NOT (a change in X causes Y to change)

Associative Claims: Positive Association

A relationship where both variables move together in a positive direction (as $X$ increases, $Y$ increases)

Associative Claims: Negative Association

A relationship where variables move together negatively (as $X$ decreases, $Y$ decreases).

Zero Association

The absence of any statistical relationship between two variables.

Predictive Power of Associations

Positive and negative associations enable predictions, while zero associations do not; stronger associations yield more accurate predictions.

Association Claims: Predictions

Useful claims that help make predictions where strong associations lead to stronger predictions and weak associations lead to weaker predictions.

Causal Claims

Claims asserting that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable, supported by experiments.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the variable being tested and measured to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.

Three Criteria for Causal Claims

1. Must have an association. 2. Must have appropriate temporal order. 3. Must have no alternative explanations (confounds).

Experimental Study

A study where participants are assigned to conditions or treatments (levels of the IV) while the researcher manipulates one or more variables.

Correlational Study Characteristics

A study design where participants have different variables measured or observed without any variable manipulation by the researcher.

Construct Validity

The extent to which operational variables in a study are good approximations of the conceptual construct.

External Validity

How well the results of a study generalize to a larger population as well as to other times or situations.

Population

All possible people that have a certain set of specified characteristics.

Sample

A small subset of individuals selected from the target population.

Statistical Validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions drawn from a study are accurate and reasonable.

Point Estimate

A single numerical value from a sample estimating a population value (e.g., percentage, mean, median, correlation coefficient).

Confidence Interval

A range of values designed to capture the population value for a point estimate; wider intervals reflect less confidence and precision.

Validity

The overall appropriateness of a conclusion or decision drawn from a study.

Internal Validity

The extent to which a study can rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship, confirming the absence of confounds.

Tradeoff Between Internal and External Validity

Lab settings provide high internal validity but low external validity, whereas real-life settings offer high external validity but lower control over confounds.

Interrogating Frequency Claims

Evaluating construct validity of the variable, essential external validity, and statistical validity.

Interrogating Association Claims Validity

Evaluating the construct validity of EACH variable, statistical validity, and external validity.

Interrogating a Causal Claims Validity

Evaluating covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity.

Construct Validity of Variables

Assessing how well the independent variable was manipulated and how well the dependent variable was measured.

How Experiments Support Causal Claims

By manipulating the IV to ensure temporal precedence and using random assignment to eliminate confounding variables.

Mistaken Causal Claim Example

Claiming 'Family meals curb teen EDs' from a single survey shows covariance but lacks temporal precedence and internal validity.

The Tuskegee Study (1932-1972)

An unethical study that withheld syphilis diagnosis and treatment from participants, violating Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice.

A Priori Prediction

A prediction formulated and stated before seeing or collecting research data.

Post-Hoc Prediction

A prediction made after seeing the data, which is potentially presented as if it had been predicted beforehand.

Registered Report

A rigorous form of preregistration where literature review, hypotheses, and methods are peer-reviewed before data collection.

Ethical Research Rules Origins

Historical frameworks including Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report, and the National Research Act of 1974.

Three Core Principles of the Belmont Report

1. Principle of Respect for Persons. 2. Principle of Beneficence. 3. Principle of Justice.

Principle of Respect for Persons

Principle stating individuals are autonomous agents with intrinsic worth, requiring informed consent, prohibiting coercion, and protecting vulnerable groups.

Principle of Beneficence

Principle requiring researchers to protect participants from harm, promote well-being, balance risks and benefits, preserve privacy, and not withhold helpful treatments.

Principle of Justice

Principle demanding a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it.

Ethics Training

Standard requirement mandated by most institutions requiring researchers to complete regular training on ethical guidelines.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee responsible for ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically.

Debriefing

A post-experiment discussion where researchers inform participants about any deception (withholding details or lying) used during the study.

IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

A required committee in US research institutions that protect animal welfare and ensure guidelines are followed to minimize harm in animal research.