KINE 266 - L9

What is a group?

Two or more people who have a sense of interaction or interdependence for a common purpose

How is a team different from a group?

A team is a group that must interact with each other to accomplish a shared objective. 

4 key characteristics of teams

• Collective sense of identity

• Distinctive Roles (& that role is valued)

• Structured modes of communication (can range from when team meetings are to how they speak to each other - more complex)

• Norms

What is group dynamics?

• The study of how groups form, develop, interact, and relate to individuals and institutions.

• long version: A field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the laws of their development and their interrelationships with individuals, other groups and larger institutions.

3 major perspectives of how a group becomes a team

(1)  Linear Perspective

  (2)  Cyclical (Life Cycle) Perspective

  (3)  Pendular Perspective

What is the Linear Perspective (Tuckman) model?

proposes that teams move through fixed stages in order and do not return to earlier stages.

Stages of Linear Perspective/Tuckman model

Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning

Linear Perspective: Stage 1 - Forming

groups initially get together, a lot unknown, no cohesion, no roles yet

Linear Perspective Stage 2 - Storming

where conflict arises, usually over roles (not having established norms), some people may step up to roles some may feel coach is giving special attention to others

→ infighting !! People don’t know what it is expected of them

Linear Perspective Stage 3 - Norming

things work out, athletes start to but in, acceptance & clarity of roles

Linear Perspective Stage 4 - Performing

everything at its height & in place

→ established norms & understand + accept roles, modes of communication in place

→ this is where they will physically perform their best

Linear Perspective Stage 5 - Adjourning

end of the season, things might change next season, some shift out, some new coming in, process would start over

What is the Cyclical (Life Cycle) perspective?

Groups develop in a manner similar to the life cycle of individuals

• birth → growth → death

• often used for short-term teams.

Why is the cyclical model used for some teams?

Because some teams are temporary and naturally decline in cohesion over time.

Cyclical Perspective: Birth

getting to know each other

Cyclical Perspective: Growth

at their height of performance, height of connection within team

Cyclical Perspective: Death

knowing its temporary, subconsciously or consciously preparing for end, limits them from achieving their best potential

What is the Pendular perspective?

Teams move back and forth between cohesion and conflict throughout the season.

Stages of pendular model

Orientation → Conflict → Cohesion → Conflict again → Termination

Pendular Perspective Stage 1: Orientation

High cohesion and unity

• excited, no animosity or competition yet, looking forward to it

Pendular Perspective Stage 2: Differentiation & Conflict

Subdivision into smaller groups

• cliques, starters vs. nonstarters, groups that get more/less playing time → bring conflict in

Pendular Perspective Stage 3: Resolution & Cohesion

Sharing of common concerns and feelings

• work through it, accept goal, communication with coach

Pendular Perspective Stage 4: Differentiation & Conflict

Some individuals are rewarded, others punished

• maybe one athlete takes a spot, others are mad bc they think they deserved it, new player comes in maybe → conflict comes back

Pendular Perspective Stage 5: Termination

Feelings of cohesion based on season outcome

• outcome of season is what people are going to base their analysis of their cohesiveness on,

• could have been a lot of conflict but if they won the season most athletes will say it was a great season & there was lots of cohesion

• if they didn’t win they would say the opposite

Group Roles & Norms are…

..essential for creating an effective team

Role

A set of behaviors required or expected of the person occupying a certain position in a group, or a set of skills

Difference: formal vs informal roles

• Formal: assigned (captain)

• Informal: naturally developed (leader, comedian, spark plug)

What is role ambiguity?

Uncertainty about one’s responsibilities → lowers cohesion, increases conflict.

Norm

A level of performance, pattern of behavior or belief. How you conduct ourself in environment

Role clarity and role acceptance are key

Having clarity about what your role in the team is regardless of what it is, that it is valued, and accepting your goal even if its not your own personal goal

Informal Roles: Comedian

person that brings humor to most situations

Informal Roles: Spark Plug

Person who brings level of enthusiasm when necessary, brings high level of vigor

Informal Roles: Cancer

person that brings everybody down, bring a lot of negativity, form cliques, not on board with productive norms

Informal Roles: Enforcer

supports team mates so much that they physically back them

Informal Roles: Mentor

person that everybody trusts, high communication skills, sought out to have conversations with

Informal Roles: Nonverbal informal leader

lead by action, not appointed captain, lead through actions

Informal Roles: Verbal informal leader

hasn’t been appointed as captain, but uses words to rally team on & off field

Informal Roles: Team Player

not seeking individual glory, makes the pass before the shot, willing to make sacrifices for good of the team

Informal Roles: Star Player

flashy player, not always impactful to game, certain style of play that causes people to pay attention to them, not ALWAYS the best

Informal Roles: Malingerer

always has an injury, usually fake, seeking attention

Informal Roles: Social Convener

person really interested in things to gather outside of sport (hanging out after practice

Norms can be

• Formal or informal

• Norms for productivity facilitate success

• Can be negative

Norms for productivity

facilitate success

6 factors of creating an effective team climate

Social support, perception, proximity, fairness, similarity, task interdependence

Effective Team Climate: Social Support

athletes want to know coach cares about development, over-all well being & them as a person, also among athletes

Effective Time Climate: Perception is key!

what do athletes think is happening → affects team climate

Effective team climate: Proximity

closer you can keep athletes, can create more effective team climate

Effective Team Climate: Distinctiveness

knowing this is who we are, team uniforms for ex. But there are different ways

Effective Team Climate: Fairness

does not mean sameness, when athlete believes environment. Is fair (seen as people & that coaches are trying to work w/them as individuals)

Effective Team Climate: Similarity

similarity in motivations for being there, what team is trying to accomplish

Effective Team Climate: Task Interdependence

creating situations where people have to work together more often, thinking critically of how to structure team

What is task interdependence?

Players must rely on each other to succeed.

Steiner’s Model of productivity formula

Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity – Losses Due To Faulty Group Processes

Types of process losses: Motivational Losses

any situation that results in members putting less than their full effort in

Types of process losses: Coordination losses

physical components (tiny) understanding of plays, understanding of game formation

Ringelmann effect definition

• The phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases

• As groups grow in size, people are more likely to put in less effort

• Social loafing

What is social loafing?

putting in less than your full effort in groups than alone

Ringlemann’s Rope Pull Study

Observed individuals and groups of 2, 3 and 8

• Results:

2 people = 93% of individual potential

3 people = 85% of individual potential

8 people = 49% of individual potential

Social Loafing Research

• Replicated rope pulling

• Eliminated coordination as a factor (were told other people were on the rope (blinded) but there actually weren’t)

• Results:

1 person = 100%

2 people = 90%

3 people = 85%

4 people = 86%

5 people = 84%

6 people = 85%

When Does Social Loafing Occur? (Long Version)

• It is more prominent in situations where:

The individual’s output cannot be independently evaluated.

The task is perceived to be low on meaningfulness.

The individual’s personal involvement in the task is low.

A comparison against group standards is not possible.

The individuals contributing to the collective effort are strangers.

The individual’s teammates or coworkers are seen as high in ability.

The individual perceives that his contribution to the outcome is redundant (not valuable, unnecessary).

The individual is competing against what she believes to be a weaker opponent (underestimating opponent).

The group is larger rather than smaller.

When does social loafing occur?

• Low accountability

• Large groups

• Low task importance

• Effort not individually measurable

Definition of Cohesion

• A group’s tendency to stick together to achieve goals and satisfy emotional needs.

• Long version: A dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective (emotional) needs

Elements of Cohesion: Attractiveness of the group

how much do I like these people, & how much do I want to be around them./be in this environment

Elements of Cohesion: Means control

what am I going to get out of this experience? Vary from individuals & their motivations (Am I going to play the position I want, advance my play, get me recognition for a higher level team?)

Factors of Cohesion

1. Multidimensional

2. Dynamic (shifts overtime)

3. Instrumental (for a purpose, what are we cohesive towards)

4. Affective (produces feelings of emotion in people)

Types of Cohesion: Task Cohesion:

how well the group works together physically, technically, tactically, to produce sport outcomes

Types of Cohesion: Social Cohesion

how much they like each other and get along

Two types of cohesion

• Task cohesion (performance focus)

• Social cohesion (liking each other)

Factors that affect cohesion

1. Environmental

2. Personal

3. Leadership

4. Team

Environmental Factors in model

Contractual responsibility, organization orientation  impacts person factors & leader ship factors + team factors

Personal factors in model

individual orientation, satisfaction, individual differences  impact team factors + leadership factors

Leadership factors in model

leadership behavior, leader ship style, coach athletes personalities --< impact team factors

Team factors in model

group task, desire for group success, group orientation, group productivity norm, team ability, team stability --> impact cohesion

Cohesion in model

task cohesion or social cohesion  impact group outcomes & individual outcomes

Group outcomes in model

team stability, absolute performance effectiveness, relative performance effectiveness

individual outcomes in model

behavioral consequences, absolute performance effectiveness, relative performance effectiveness, satisfaction  impact group outcomes

Measuring Cohesion: Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) - 4 dimensions

1. Attraction to group – task: I like this groups style of play

2. Attraction to group – social: I like this person/people on this team

3. Group integration – task: We all take responsibility for anu loss or poor performance by team

4. Group integration – social: We all hangout everyday after practice

Cohesion & Performance Key Research Findings

Cohesion is positively related to success → groups that are more cohesive on both task & social tend to have better outcomes

Direction of causality in cohesion-performance link research

Cyclical Relationship ! → Can start off with one or the other & produce better performances, feed off of each other

Research of Cohesion & Performance - Task Demands: Coactive vs Interactive Sports

• Coactive = outcome does not depend directly on you interacting w/each other

• Interactive = outcome depends on HAVING to work together with teammates to produce outcome

• Cohesion is most important in interactive sports (but important in both)

How Can Cohesion Be Increased?

• Communication

• Roles

• Development of pride

• Goals

• Distinctiveness

• Avoid cliques

• Team meetings

• Know your team

• Social disclosure (leader/coach sharing things so athletes see them as person, then more willing to talk to each other)

What model fits teams with repeated conflict and resolution?

Pendular perspective.

What does team identity (e.g., jerseys, bracelets, team name) increase?

Distinctiveness → increases cohesion.