Influences on Psychological Development and Brain Function

Psychological Development

The way a person grows and changes over time.

Nature (Hereditary Factors)

Inborn or inherited factors genetically passed from biological parents. EG - genes

Nurture (Environmental Factors)

Experiences, objects, and events to which we are exposed to across our lifetime.

EG - learning environment

Interaction

A person's genes give them potential, but whether this potential is reached depends on their environment.

The Biopsychosocial Model

Examines how biological, psychological, and social aspects all play roles in health and disease.

Biological Factors

Physical health, disabilities, and genetics

Psychological Factors

Behaviour, beliefs, personality, and mental health

Social Factors

Education, peers, childhood trauma, and work

Sensitive Periods

A time when a person is more receptive to learning skills. Eg. Ideal time that something happens in - learning instrument as a child is easier than an adult

Critical Periods

A short, specific time when a skill or ability must be developed; if not learned, it may never be developed. Eg if a child isn't exposed to language during their first few days of life then they may struggle to develop the skill later

Emotional Development

How an individual experiences different feelings and how those feelings are expressed. Eg. The way anger is expressed by a 10-year-old compared to a 60-year-old.

- ainsworths attachment theory

Harlows experiment on attachment in monkeys

Cognitive Development

Changes in a person's mental abilities over time.

Eg. Reasoning, learning

Assimilation

Adding new info to existing ideas.

EG - seeing a Dalmatian and thinking "this is a dog"

Accommodation

Adjusting existing ideas after new experiences.

EG - "whales aren't fish but they just live in the ocean"

Social Development

Changes in a person's relationships and interaction skills.

EG - Msingsining relationships

Typical Behaviour

Behaviour you expect; occurs at expected stages.

EG - Eg. Meeting milestones, sleeping at night

Atypical Behaviour

Unusual or unexpected behaviour.

EG - Staying up for days without sleep

Normality

Patterns of behaviour that are typical and expected.

Abnormality

Behaviour that is unusual or strange.

Neurotypicality

People with typical brain development and cognitive functioning.

Neurodiversity

Refers to neurological differences (e.g., ADHD, autism) being normal variations of human functioning, not deficits.

Adaptive

Any behaviour that allows someone to adjust to the environment.

EG. Studying consistently for a good grade - "I can learn from mistakes"

Maladaptive

Behaviour that stops a person from adjusting to the environment.

EG - Extreme anxiety before social interactions - "I will never be good at this

Cultural Perspectives

Different cultures have different views of normal/abnormal behaviour.

EG - making slurping sounds with noodles in Japan is appropriate but not in Western countries

Social Norms

Behaviour that goes against what most people in society see as normal.

EG - don't push in line, go to the back

Statistical Rarity

Behaviour that is unusual compared to what most people do.

EG - having a super high IQ like 160 is rare

Personal Distress

Behaviour that causes the person to feel upset or stressed.

EG - feeling extreme sadness for weeks may show a mental health issue

Maladaptive Behaviour

Behaviour that makes it hard for someone to live their daily life.

EG - not going to school because of anxiety - stops normal functioning.

Autism

Differences in communication, behaviour, and social interaction.

EG - difficulty understanding sarcasm

ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

Affects attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.

EG - people get easily distracted fidget and squirm

Dyslexia

Affects reading and spelling.

EG - mixing of letters, struggle matching letters to sounds

Psychologists

Study for 6 years (no medical degree) and focus on mental and emotional issues.

Psychiatrists

Study for 12 years (with medical degree), can prescribe medication, and treat serious mental illnesses

Monozygotic Twins (Identical Twins)

They have 100% the same DNA, are always the same sex, and look very similar.

Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal Twins)

They share about 50% of their DNA (like any siblings), can be same or different sex, and may not look alike.

Independent Variable (IV)

The thing that you change in the experiment; it's what you're testing to see if it has an effect.

Think: "I" change this.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The thing that you measure in the experiment; it's what changes because of the independent variable.

Think: "Depends" on the IV.

Control Group

The group that isn't exposed to the IV.

EG - If you're testing if music helps with studying, the control group studies with no music.

Brain vs heart debate

Egyptians believed the heart was the most central for mental processes while the Greeks thought it was the brain.

Mind-body problem

French philosopher didn't know whether the mind controlled the body or if the body controlled the mind.

Phrenology

Technique used to predict your behaviour and characteristics based on weather lumps and bumps with sitting on the surface of the skull.

Brain ablation and lesioning

Brain ablation is the surgical removal of tissue and brain lesioning damaging specific brain areas; this was used to observe behavioural changes.

Split brain research

In the experiment, information is sent to one side of the visual field only; it examines patients whose corpus callosum has been severed.

- Info from the right visual feild is seen by the left side of each eye and sent to the left hemisphere

CT scan

Patient receives an injection of iodine dye into the blood vessels to act as a contrast to the features of the brain.

MRI

Harmless magnetic field that is used to produce a more clear and detailed image than a CT scan.

PET

Produces a computer generated image involves using radioactive glucose which is harmless and is injected into the body.

FMRI

Measures brain activity by detecting red blood cells that contain iron (has magnetic properties).

Cerebellum

( hind brain)

Helps co-ordinate voluntary movement, core balance and repetitive tasks.

Medulla

( hind brain)

Vital functions such as breathing, heart rate.

Pons

( hind brain)

Sleep + breathing.

Reticular formation

(midbrain)

Regulates flow of information to the brain and modulates incoming sensory stimuli.

Hypothalamus

(forebrain)

Homeostasis, hormones, hunger + thirst.

Thalamus

(forebrain)

Transmits sensory info except for smell.

Cerebrum

(forebrain)

Responsible for cognitive functions + voluntary movement.

Cerebral Cortex

Outermost layer of the brain responsible for complex mental functions (language, memory + reasoning).

Left hemisphere

Language, writing, logic, maths.

Right hemisphere

Spatial/visual tasks, music, art, face recognition.

Frontal lobe

Higher mental functioning such as thinking planning and organising.

Primary motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement and fine motor skills.

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for executive functions like planning and decision making.

Broca's area

Responsible for language production.

Parietal Lobe

Receives sensory information within the lobe and controls spatial reasoning and attention

Primary somatosensory cortex

Receives and processes sensory information responsible for touch temperature pain and body movements.

Occipital lobe

Processing of visual data and interprets visual data to form visual perceptions.

Primary visual cortex

Processes visual information (line colours and textures).

Temporal lobe

Functions: memory, face recognition.

Primary auditory cortex

Receives and processes sound.

Wernicke's area

Language comprehension (left hemisphere).

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt its structure and function in response to experience, learning or injury.

Dendrites

Soma

Nucleus

Axon

Myelin sheath

Axon terminal

Experience-expectant plasticity

Refers to the brain's ability to adapt and change in response to the environmental experiences during development (EG- sound, language and exposure to light).

Experience-dependent plasticity

Refers to the ability of the brain to change and adapt its neural connections based on specific individual experiences (EG- learning new skills, adapting to a new environment).

LTP

Strengthening of synaptic connections.

LTD

Weakening of unused synapses.

Synaptogenesis

Creation of new synapses.

Synaptic pruning

Removal of unused synapses.

Myelination

Coating axons with myelin for faster communication.

Sprouting

Growth of new dendrites to connect with axons.

Rerouting

Creating new neural pathways around damage.

Acquired brain injury

Brain damage that occurs after birth.

Sudden onset

Happens quickly (e.g. trauma, stroke, infection, alcohol/drug overdose).

Insidious onset

Develops slowly (e.g. tumour, degenerative disease, prolonged alcohol use).

Concussion

A type of acquired brain injury caused by a blow to the head.

Neurological disorders

A condition that affects the brain or spinal cord, often long lasting, impacting language, movement, vision, cognition.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

Progressive brain disease caused by repeated head trauma. Tau protein cannot breakdown because of the trauma so it kills cells

Symptoms of CTE

Memory loss, confusion, depression, anxiety.

Diagnosis of CTE

Only diagnosable after death using autopsy (look for abnormal tau protein buildup).

Treatment of CTE

No cure, but medications can help manage mood symptoms, anxiety, seizures, etc.

Epilepsy

Neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures.

Parkinson's disease

Progressive neurodegenerative disorder that mainly affects movement and coordination.

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease

Tremors, slowed movement, balance issues, speech changes.

Neuroimaging

Non-invasive scans (EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI, PET) that help study the brain.

Animal studies

Used to explore causes, treatments, and effects of neurological disorders.