Abnormal Psychology Exam 1 (Modules 1-3)

deviance

describes abnormal behavior that

• is rare and unusual

• violates moral standards or idealized norms

• what you yourself would be willing to do

consider: there are healthy behaviors/beliefs that are uncommon, so this criterion alone cannot define abnormal behavior

distress

describes frequent abnormal thoughts and behaviors that cause immense emotional suffering; this generally motivates people to seek help

• schizophrenia, depression, and addictions are especially (this criterion)

dysfunction

describes maladaptive behavior that interferes with our well-being, goal attainment, etc/

• as opposed to functional behavior that enables us to meet goals

dangerousness

describes hostility, confusing, and unpredictable abnormal behavior that may be harmful to oneself or others

irrationality

describes abnormal behavior that is illogical and not based on reality or evidence

observer discomfort

describes behaviors that create discomfort in others

• narcissism, dependency, bizarre or hostile behavior

• possibly even violations of cultural norms

abnormality

behavioral, emotional, or cognitive dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with personal distress or substantial impairment in functioning

supernatural causation

ancient belief that abnormal behavior was due to supernatural forces; evil spirits, curses, demonic possession, and personal skin; the cure was to force the demons out the body via trephination, exorcism, or flogging

physical causation

posited by Hippocrates during 500 BC and 500 AD; abnormality resulted from physical problems like changes in the “four humors” (body fluids)

• Black bile = melancholy, depression, introspection

• Yellow bile = anger, ambition, irritability

• Blood = sociability and optimism

• Phlegm = calmness and passivity

psychogenic causation

posited by Galen during 500 BC and 500 AD; abnormality resulted from either the mind or the body; emotional states are independent motivational forces that can disrupt balance of the “four humors,” leading to physical deterioration

somatogenic perspective

perspective from the 20th century and attributed to Kraeplin; abnormal functioning was due to physical causes/factors; for instance, untreated syphilis and general paresis were linked

psychogenic perspective

perspective from the 20th century and attributed to Mesmer and Freud; abnormal functioning was due to psychological causes/factors

case studies

detailed study of a person’s life and psychological problems

• PROS

  • potential source of new hypotheses

  • can document rare phenomena (or disorders)

• CONS

  • reliant on subjective evidence with researcher and subject bias

  • low internal validity, low external validity

  • cannot prove C&E

internal validity

the degree to which a study can determine cause and effect

external validity

the degree to which a study’s results can be generalized to a larger population

survey method

research method involving gathering large numbers of people to answer questions about attitudes, behaviors etc.; requires representative sample

• PROS

  • cost-effective

  • replicable

• CONS

  • participant bias; they may lie, can’t distinguish saying vs. doing

  • cannot prove C&E

representative sample

sample criteria for results of a study to be generalized to a broader public; the sample must be similar to the population of interest in terms of age, gender, race, etc.

correlational method

research method that measures the relationship between variables by strength and direction

• PROS

  • can generalize findings

  • replicable

• CONS

  • cannot prove C&E

  • third variable problem

  • consider: two variables may appear linked from data, but they may have zero connection at all

positive correlation

variables change in the same direction; as one increases, the other increases as well

• time spent studying vs. grade

negative correlation

variables change in the opposite directions; as one increases, the other decreases

• time spent exercising vs. health complications

experimental method

research method where one or more variables are selected by the researcher and the effects of the other variables are predicted and examined

• PROS

  • can prove C&E

  • replicable

• CONS

  • artificial environment; results may not be generalizable to outside lab conditions

overview of why experiments can determine C&E

1. experiments are performed in controlled settings; labs may have reduced environmental/confounding variables

2. (required) random assignment of participants in the experimental and control groups; this results in an even distribution of preexisting traits that might influence the variable of interest between experimental and control groups

• experiments may still determine C&E without being in controlled settings, but random assignment is absolutely necessary for determining C&E

statistical significance

when the difference between the groups is so big that there is less than a 5% chance that the difference was due to chance; no real difference exists

• heavily dependent on random assignment of participants into groups

epidemiology

the scientific study of the frequency and causes of diseases and other health-related states in specific populations

point prevalence

indication of the proportion of a population that has the characteristic at a single given point in time; number of active cases

lifetime prevalence

indication of the proportion of a population that has had the characteristic at any time during their lives

incidence

indication of the number of new cases in a population over a specific period of time

comorbidity

describes when an individual is experiencing two or more mental disorders at the same time

ethics

provisions to protect both human and animal subjects; includes:

• informed consent: disclosure of info that may affect a participant’s decision to participate in a study

• use of deception: the benefits of the study must outweigh the risk

• confidentiality: the identity and scores of participants are protected

• debriefing: the participants are informed of the study after participation

structural theory

a biological model of abnormality stating that damage to brain structures (physical trauma, genetics, etc.) causes abnormality

chemical/biochemical imbalance theories

a biological model of abnormality with emphasis on neuron communication via neurotransmitters; states that imbalances in neurotransmitters cause abnormality

overview of neurotransmitters

• neurons fire electrical charges (action potentials) to trigger the release of NTs at the synapse

• at the synapse, which is a gap across neurons, NTs that are released bind to receptors on the receiving neuron

• NTs binding to receptors can either:

  • make the neuron more likely to fire an electrical impulse; excitatory effect

  • make the neuron less likely to fire an electrical impulse; inhibitory effect

the limbic system

network of structures in the brain responsible for learning, memory, motivation, emotions, and reward/pleasure; includes

• thalamus

• hypothalamus

• amygdala

• hippocampus

serotonin

• low levels of this NT along with norepinephrine are linked to depression

• high levels of this NT can cause hallucinations

dopamine

• this NT is linked to motivation; it is found in areas of the brain associated with reinforcement/reward

• affected by substances and behaviors we consider pleasurable

• high levels of this NT is linked to schizophrenia

norepinephrine

• this NT is produced by neurons in the brain stem

• methamphetamines increase production of this NT

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

• this NT is inhibitory

• anti-anxiety drugs work in the same way as this NT

overview of the three processes affected by NT-influencing medications

1. synthesis: medication can cause the neuron to synthesize more NTs → more NTs available at the synapse OR make less NTs → less NTs available at the synapse

2. reuptake: medication can inhibit a neuron’s ability to reabsorb excess NTs → more NTs available at the synapse

3. metabolizing enzymes: medication can inhibit enzymes that destroy NTs → more NTs available at the synapse

agonist medication

type of medication that binds directly to the receptor site and mimics the effect of an NT

• morphine is an agonist to endorphins

antagonist medication

type of medication that binds directly to the receptor site and prevents the effect of an NT

• narcan and nalaxone block opiod drugs from binding to neuron receptors

• while on the neuron receptors, they do nothing

weak overview of the endocrine system and hormones

• hormones: chemicals excreted by glands (or organs)

• the endocrine system: network of these glands and organs

• hormones are responsible for regulating body functions

• fluctuations in hormones can influence behavior

genetic theories

a biological model of abnormality that observes the relative contributions of genetics vs. environment in determining psychological disorders; these specific types of studies are emphasized

• twin studies: examine incidence of psychological disorder in identical twins (with 100% shared genes) or fraternal twins (with on average 50% genes shared)

  • concordance: describes the probability that if one twin has a disorder, the other will as well

• adoption studies: examine concordance rate of traits in twins raised in different environments

biopsychosocial theory

a multi-perspective theory that states abnormal behavior has multiple causes (biological, psychological, and social) that combine to create a disorder

overview of the biological model

• PROS

  • advanced understanding of the brain and abnormal behavior

  • treatments are found to be successful

  • reduce stigma of psychological disorder

• CONS

  • reductionist/too simplistic/limiting, straight-forward understanding or approach of psychological disorders

id

part of our unconscious that wants instant gratification, according to Freud’s theory of personality

ego

part of our unconscious that acts as a mediator and rationalizes between the other two components, according to Freud’s theory of personality

superego

part of our unconscious that holds our internalized moral standards, according to Freud’s theory of personality

overview of defense mechanisms against anxiety

• repression: unconsciously forcing unacceptable impulses out of awareness

• projection: attributing one’s own unacceptable desires to others

• displacement: diverting unacceptable impulses toward safer targets

• rationalization: explaining away unacceptable behavior illogically

• denial: distorting reality by negating the truth

• sublimation: expressing repressed desires in socially acceptable ways

psychoanalytic approach

part of the psychodynamic model that describes “traditional” Freudian psychotherapy; aims to get at unconscious dynamics via

• free association

• therapist interpretation

• catharsis: re-experiencing repressed feelings

overview of the psychodynamic model

• PROS

  • helped further the utility of talk therapy

  • comprehensive theory of human behavior

  • Freud shed light on the importance of childhood

• CONS

  • unconscious processes are

    • non-observable

    • inaccessible to the human subject

    • difficult or impossible to test its fundamental assumptions scientifically

actualizing tendency

an aspect of personality development according to the humanistic theory; we are born with a force that directs our behavior “into ways that foster growth and happiness”

conditions of worth

an aspect of the humanistic theory of personality that states that

• pleasing others becomes more important than pursuing one’s own actualizing tendency

• healthy growth is threatened; we become incapable of self-actualization

• we don’t know what really makes us happy

• the solution: unconditional positive regard and client-centered therapy

  • involves active listening and conveying empathy

  • remember: the awkward labeling and mirroring exercise from that one lecture

overview of the humanistic theory of personality

• PROS

  • the focus on free will is easier to digest compared to other approaches to pathology

• CONS

  • the humanistic approach strategies in therapy are appropriate for clients who are moderately distressed but not seriously distressed

classical conditioning

associations between environmental events and behavioral responses; part of the behavioral model

• remember: Pavlov’s dog

• unconditioned stimulus: unlearned stimulus that elicits involuntary response (food)

• unconditioned response: unlearned physiological response (salivation)

• conditioned stimulus: formerly neutral stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (bell)

• conditioned response: learned physiological response to a previously neutral stimulus (salivation after bell)

operant conditioning

according to the behavioral model, behavior is determined by consequences (rewards/punishment)

• consider: one may experience their disorder as “rewarding”

overview of the behavioral model

• PROS

  • effectiveness extensively supported in controlled studies

  • could account for some disorders

• CONS

  • evidence from laboratory studies may not be generalized to outside the lab

  • does not recognize free will in behaviors

thought distortions

according to the cognitive perspective, psychological disorders are caused by conscious unhealthy thoughts; based on 3 irrational assumptions + catastrophic thinking

1. “i must be competent in all domains”

2. “everyone must love/approve of me”

3. “the world must be nice and accommodating at all times”

• “…or else it will be horrible, catastrophic, and unbearable… and I couldn’t handle it”

overview of the cognitive model

• PROS

  • clinically useful and effective

  • theories lend themselves to research

  • therapies of this model are effective in treating several disorders

• CONS

  • some cognitive changes may be difficult to achieve

  • new therapies have emerged with emphasis on accepting thoughts instead of acting on them/challenging them

    • acceptance and commitment therapy, mindfulness-based techniques

other/less prevalent models of abnormality

• sociocultural: focus on cultural and social factors

• family systems: examine and target family dynamics

• eclectic: combine aspects of other approaches (cognitive, sociocultural, etc.)

assessment

process of collecting relevant info to reach a conclusion

• establishes a deeper understanding of a client

• facilitates diagnosis

• informs treatment

reliability

describes the consistency of a test

test-retest reliability

describes consistency of a test across repeated administrations

internal consistency

describes consistency between different parts of the same test

interrater reliability

describes agreement between independent observers

validity

describes the accuracy of a test’s results

clinical interviews

the most commonly used approach of clinical assessment

• allows collection of detailed info

• intentional: importance in not only “what” is said but “how” things are said

• can either be structured or unstructured

overview of unstructured clinical interviews

in this type of interview, clinicians ask open ended questions

• allows the therapist the freedom to explore issues they feel are relevant

• allows the client the freedom to verbalize concerns they see as most relevant

• PROS

  • establishment of rapport

  • flexibility for client/clinician to explore issues they feel are relevant

• CONS

  • clients may mislead interviewers

  • interviewers may be biased

    • by theoretical orientation

    • unduly weight first impressions, negative information

  • possibility of confirmatory bias: therapist tendency to attend to info that confirms initial conceptualization of the clients’ problems while minimizing info that refutes it

  • overall, reliability and validity may be compromised

overview of structured interviews

in this type of interview, clinicians ask prepared questions; standardized

• “what kind of work do you do?”

• “how did you react when (trauma) happened? were you afraid or did you feel terrified or helpless?”

• “now I’d like to ask you a few questions about specific ways that it may have affected you

• PROS

  • less vulnerable to interviewer bias (theoretical orientation, first impressions, confirmatory bias)

  • more reliable and valid

• CONS

  • clients may mislead interviewers

  • can seem impersonal; more challenging to establish rapport this way

projective tests

type of clinical test where subjects interpret ambiguous stimuli; commonly employed by psychodynamic practitioners

• rorschach inkblot

• thematic apperception test

• PROS

  • provides “supplementary” info

• CONS

  • poor reliability or validity

  • minimal research supporting its utility with minority ethnic groups

personal inventories

type of clinical test that measures broad personality characteristics in a self-report procedure; the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is the most widely used

• 335 questions in the form of self-statements describing physical concerns, mood, social activities, and psychological symptoms

  • can only be answered T, F, cannot say

• PROS

  • easy to administer, objective

  • higher validity and reliability

• CONS

  • fails to account for cultural differences in responses

response inventories

type of clinical test that focuses on a specific area of abnormality in a self-report procedure; two examples are the Beck Depression Inventory and The Eating Attitudes Test

overview of psychophysiological tests, neurological tests, and neuropsychological tests

• psychophysiological tests: measure physiological indicators of psychological distress

  • lie detectors → measure heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc.

• neurological tests: directly assess brain function/structure/activity

  • PET scan, CT scan, fMRI, EEG, etc.

• neuropsychological tests: indirectly assess brain functioning by assessing cognitive, motor, etc. functioning

  • Bender Visual Motor Gestalt

  • better indicates abnormality than neurological tests

intelligence tests

type of clinical test that assesses verbal and non-verbal skills; the most popular is the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale

• verbal comprehension index (VCI): tests similarities, vocab, and info

• perceptual reasoning index (PRI): block design, matrix reasoning and visual puzzles

• the general ability index (GAI): VCI + PRI

• PROS

  • highly standardized

  • high reliability and validity

• CONS

  • performance can be influenced by motivation, anxiety, test-taking experience

  • tests may contain cultural biases

naturalistic observation

clinical observation strategy of observing a client in an everyday environment; home, school, institutions (hospitals and prisons)

• most focus on parent-child, sibling-child, or teacher-child interactions

• observations generally made by “participant observers” and reported to a clinician

• PROS

  • may get a more natural (“truer”) sample of behavior

  • may get interrater reliability between teacher and parent

• CONS

  • interrater reliability is a concern; different observers may focus on different aspects of behavior

  • valdiity is a concern

    • risk of observer bias

    • observations may lack cross-situational validity

self-monitoring

clinical observation strategy where people observe themselves and carefully record the frequency of certain behaviors, feelings, or cognitions as they occur over time; eating disorders → food/mood logs, behavior logs

• PROS

  • useful in assessing infrequent and overly frequent behaviors

  • useful for measuring private thoughts or perceptions

• CONS

  • validity is often a problem; clients may not record info accurately

  • when people monitor themselves, they often change their behavior

overview of reasons for diagnosis

• communication shorthand

• etiology: cause, origin, or reasons behind a disease or condition

• treatment possibilities

• aid to scientific investigations

• enabling third party payments (insurance)

overview of consequences of diagnosis and labeling

• misdiagnosis is always a concern; a major issue is reliance on clinical judgment

• labeling and stigma; diagnosis may become a self-fulfilling prophecy; seeing the condition before the person

  • individual with schizophrenia vs. schizophrenic