: Comprehensive Human Anatomy and Physiology

A complete set of 127 flashcards covering all major body systems, physiological processes, and common disorders from the NCBI Anatomy and Physiology text. Includes detailed definitions, mechanisms, clinical context (risk factors, diagnostics, treatments), and structural insights for a thorough understanding of human anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Ideal for students mastering foundational medical science.

Cardiovascular System

Cardiovascular System

The heart, blood, and blood vessels work together to circulate oxygen, nutrients, and waste; heart pumps 5-6 liters of blood per minute.

Blood Composition

Consists of plasma (liquid), red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), and platelets (aid clotting).

Hemoglobin

Protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen for transport; releases oxygen in tissues.

Cardiac Cycle

The sequence of heart contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) to pump blood.

Cardiac Output

Volume of blood heart pumps per minute (~5 L at rest); depends on heart rate and stroke volume.

Heart Anatomy

Four chambers (two atria, two ventricles); valves (e.g., mitral, aortic) ensure one-way flow.

Cyanosis

Bluish discoloration around the mouth and extremities due to decreased oxygenated blood flow.

Hypertension (HTN)

Increased pressure of blood flow against the arteries; >130/80 mmHg indicates high blood pressure.

Hypertension Diagnosis

Measured by sphygmomanometer; >130/80 mmHg indicates high blood pressure.

Heart Failure (HF)

Heart muscle becomes weakened and unable to pump oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood adequately.

Heart Failure Treatment

Includes diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and lifestyle changes to reduce heart strain.

Atrial Fibrillation

Irregular heart rhythm that can cause decreased blood pressure, blood clots, and strokes.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Cholesterol deposits (plaque) cause decreased oxygenated blood flow in the heart and arteries.

Coronary Artery Disease Diagnosis

ECG, stress test, or angiogram detect blockages in coronary arteries.

Atherosclerosis

Plaque buildup in arteries, narrowing vessels and increasing risk of heart attack or stroke.

Myocardial Infarction

Heart attack caused by blocked coronary arteries, reducing oxygen to heart muscle.

Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

A blood clot in a deep vein, typically in the legs.

Digestive System

Digestive System

Breaks down food into nutrients for absorption; includes mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.

Ingestion

The intake of food into the digestive tract.

Mechanical Digestion

Starts with chewing, when teeth crush and grind large food particles into smaller pieces.

Chemical Digestion

Involves enzymes in saliva that break down food particles.

Digestive Enzymes

Amylase (saliva), pepsin (stomach), and lipase (pancreas) break down carbs, proteins, and fats.

Bolus

A slippery mass of partially broken-down food that moves down the digestive tract after it is swallowed.

Epiglottis

A small flap that closes to keep food from going into the trachea and lungs.

Peristalsis

Contractions in the esophagus that propel the bolus down to the stomach.

Small Intestine Structure

Duodenum, jejunum, ileum; villi and microvilli increase surface area for nutrient absorption.

Nutrient Absorption

Occurs mainly in the small intestine; nutrients enter bloodstream for distribution.

Liver Functions

Produces bile, detoxifies blood, stores glycogen, and synthesizes proteins like albumin.

Gallbladder

Stores and releases bile to emulsify fats in the small intestine.

Gut Microbiota

Trillions of microorganisms in the digestive tract aid digestion and influence health.

Stoma

Surgically created in the abdominal wall where the healthy part of the intestine is attached to allow elimination.

Hemorrhoids

Swollen vein(s) in the rectum and anus caused by straining.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

A chronic disorder causing cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, gas, diarrhea, and constipation.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

Stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms often referred to as ‘heartburn’.

Peptic Ulcer Disease

Open sores in stomach or duodenum lining, often caused by H. pylori or NSAIDs.

Celiac Disease

Immune reaction to gluten damaging the small intestine, leading to malabsorption.

Crohn’s Disease

Chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, causing diarrhea, pain, and weight loss.

Food Intolerance

An inability to digest specific foods.

Food Allergies

An immune system reaction to a specific food that can range from mild to life-threatening.

Endocrine System

Endocrine System

Regulates body functions via hormones; includes pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads.

Endocrine Glands

Secrete hormones affecting other organs, transported by the circulatory system.

Pituitary Gland

“Master gland” releases hormones (e.g., TSH, ACTH) to regulate other endocrine glands.

Hormone Feedback Loops

Negative feedback regulates hormone levels (e.g., thyroid hormone adjusts metabolism).

Pancreas

An endocrine gland that makes insulin, allowing cells to use glucose for energy.

Glucagon

Pancreatic hormone raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.

Type 1 Diabetes

Pancreas is unable to make insulin; autoimmune trigger often genetic or viral; onset typically in childhood.

Type 1 Diabetes Risk

Autoimmune trigger often genetic or viral; onset typically in childhood.

Type 2 Diabetes

Obesity causes changes in cells that leads to their diminished response to insulin.

Hypoglycemia

Very low blood sugar that can cause a coma if not quickly addressed.

Hyperglycemia

Elevated blood glucose levels.

Hyperthyroidism

Overactive thyroid increases metabolism, causing weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety.

Hypothyroidism

Underactive thyroid slows metabolism, leading to fatigue, weight gain, and depression.

Adrenal Glands

Produce cortisol (stress response) and aldosterone (blood pressure regulation).

Addison’s Disease

Adrenal insufficiency causing low cortisol, leading to fatigue, low blood pressure, and weight loss.

Cushing’s Syndrome

Excess cortisol from adrenal overactivity, causing weight gain, hypertension, and weak bones.

Musculoskeletal System

Musculoskeletal System

Provides structure, movement, and protection; includes 206 bones, 600+ muscles, and connective tissues.

Bone Structure

Compact bone (dense outer layer) and spongy bone (inner, porous); marrow produces blood cells.

Bone Remodeling

Bones constantly break down and rebuild to maintain strength, regulated by calcium and hormones.

Ligaments

Connect bones to other bones.

Tendons

Connect bones to muscles.

Cartilage

Provides bones with flexibility and acts as a cushion in the joints between bones.

Skeletal Muscle

Produces movement, maintains posture, protects organs, and generates body heat.

Gross Motor Skills

Large movements controlled by the legs and trunk of the body.

Fine Motor Skills

Small movements such as those by the wrists and hands.

Muscle Contraction

Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, powered by ATP, to produce movement.

Osteoarthritis

A medical diagnosis that refers to inflammation of joints due to wear and tear throughout one’s life.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Autoimmune disorder causing joint inflammation, pain, and deformity.

Fracture

Break in bone; types include simple, compound, and stress; healing requires immobilization.

Sprain

Injury to ligaments from overstretching, causing pain and swelling.

Muscular Dystrophy

Genetic disorder causing progressive muscle weakness and degeneration.

Urinary System

Urinary System

Filters blood, removes waste, and regulates fluid balance; kidneys produce 1-2 liters of urine daily.

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney; filters blood and forms urine.

Nephron Structure

Glomerulus, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule; regulates water and electrolytes.

Kidney Filtration

Glomerulus filters blood; tubules reabsorb water, glucose, and ions to form urine.

Renin-Angiotensin System

Kidney-driven pathway regulates blood pressure via angiotensin II and aldosterone.

Bladder Function

Stores urine until voluntary release via the urethra; holds ~400-600 mL.

Incontinence

Failure of voluntary control of urination.

Prostate

Gland that encompasses the urethra in males; enlargement can cause urinary issues.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Infection of any part of the urinary system.

Pyelonephritis

Kidney infection, often from untreated UTI, causing fever and flank pain.

Kidney Stones

Deposits of minerals from concentrated urine that form a mass in the kidneys.

Kidney Stones Treatment

Diet changes, hydration, or lithotripsy (sound waves) to break stones.

Polycystic Kidney Disease

Genetic disorder with kidney cysts, leading to hypertension and kidney failure.

Chronic Kidney Failure

Kidneys are unable to adequately filter and remove wastes and fluids from the body.

Dialysis

Treatment for kidney failure, artificially filtering blood to remove waste and excess fluid.

Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerves in the body.

Spinal Cord

Transmits signals between brain and body; reflexes bypass brain for quick responses.

Cranial Nerves

12 pairs control sensory/motor functions (e.g., optic nerve for vision, vagus for heart rate).

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals in the body used for nerve communication (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Synapse

Junction where neurons communicate via neurotransmitters like dopamine or serotonin.

Parkinson’s Disease

Decreased production of dopamine that causes slowed movement, impaired coordination and balance, tremors, and speech difficulties.

Parkinson’s Treatment

Levodopa or dopamine agonists improve movement; physical therapy aids balance.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Decline in nerve cell function results in progressive muscle weakness.

Stroke

Brain damage from blocked (ischemic) or ruptured (hemorrhagic) blood vessels, impairing function.