general psychology final exam

Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms and concepts from the notes.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior

Observable actions of humans and animals.

Mental processes

Internal experiences such as thinking, memory, emotions, and perceptions.

Scientific method

Observe, hypothesize, test, analyze, and conclude; aims for objectivity and replication.

Biological Perspective

Explains behavior through brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics.

Behavioral Perspective

Emphasizes observable behaviors and learning via reinforcement and punishment.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, and language.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and meaning; key figures include Rogers and Maslow.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Based on Freud; emphasizes unconscious motives and childhood experiences.

Sociocultural Perspective

Looks at how culture and social environment influence behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Considers how evolved mental processes and behaviors aid survival.

Clinical psychologist

Treats mental illness and emotional problems; cannot typically prescribe medication.

Counseling psychologist

Helps people with everyday life problems and adjustment.

School psychologist

Works with students, teachers, and families on educational issues.

Industrial-organizational psychologist

Applies psychology to workplace issues.

Forensic psychologist

Works in legal/criminal justice settings.

Research psychologist

Studies behavior in labs and universities.

Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

Psychologists: PhD/PsyD, no medication (usually); Psychiatrists: medical doctors (MD), can prescribe medication.

Neuron

Nerve cell that transmits information.

Dendrite

Receives signals from other neurons.

Soma (cell body)

Processes signals; part of the neuron.

Axon

Transmits signals away from the neuron.

Myelin sheath

Insulating layer that speeds neural signals.

Synapse

Gap between neurons where signals pass.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger between neurons.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, and pleasure.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement and memory.

Norepinephrine

Regulates alertness and arousal.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms brain activity.

Endorphins

Natural pain relief and pleasure in the brain.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves outside CNS; connects CNS to body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements and sensory input.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions; has sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the body during stress (fight or flight).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after stress (rest and digest).

Cerebrum

Largest brain region; involved in thinking and movement.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher thinking.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right hemispheres.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormones.

Amygdala

Emotion processing, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Critical for forming new memories.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance and movement.

Brainstem

Controls basic life functions (breathing, heart rate).

Retina

Layer of photoreceptors in the eye that converts light to signals.

Rods

Photoreceptors for dim light and black-and-white vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors for color and detail in bright light.

Photoreceptors

Rods and cones in the retina that detect light.

Optic nerve

Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

Trichromatic Theory

Color vision based on three types of cones: red, green, blue.

Opponent-Process Theory

Color is processed in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

Cochlea

Hair cells in the inner ear that convert sound to neural signals.

Auditory nerve

Carries auditory information to the brain.

Bottom-up processing

Perception starts with sensory input and builds to whole interpretation.

Top-down processing

Perception guided by prior knowledge and expectations.

Gestalt principles

Rules for how we organize perception into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground

Distinguishing an object from its background.

Similarity

Group items that are alike.

Proximity

Group items that are close together.

Closure

Fill in gaps to create a complete image.

Continuity

Perceive smooth, continuous patterns.

Size constancy

Perceive objects as having constant size despite changes in distance.

Shape constancy

Perceive familiar shapes despite changes in viewing angle.

Color constancy

Perceive colors as stable under varying lighting.

Depth perception

Ability to see in 3D.

Binocular cues

Depth cues that require two eyes.

Monocular cues

Depth cues available to one eye.

Retinal disparity

Difference between two eyes' views; helps compute distance.

Linear perspective

Convergence of parallel lines signals depth.

Gestalt vs. Constructivist views

Ecological: perception directly from environment; Constructivist: brain constructs perception using experience.

Ecological Perception (Gibson)

Direct perception from real-world stimuli; less interpretation needed.

ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

What a child can do with help but not yet alone.

Piaget’s stages

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

Sensorimotor stage

0–2 years; object permanence develops.

Preoperational stage

2–7 years; language but egocentric thinking.

Concrete Operational stage

7–11 years; logical thinking for concrete things.

Formal Operational stage

12+ years; abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Vygotsky

Sociocultural theory; learning is social; introduced ZPD.

Scaffolding

Support provided to extend a learner beyond current ability.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Eight life stages with central conflict (trust, autonomy, etc.).

Kohlberg’s moral development

Stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

Attachment styles

Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, disorganized.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget: discrete stages; Vygotsky: social learning and ZPD.

Memory

Encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Sensory memory

Very brief memory of sensory input.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Short-term memory (STM)

Limited capacity for a short time; about 7±2 items.

Working memory

Active processing and manipulation of information in STM.

Miller’s magic number

About 7±2 items in STM.

Chunking

Grouping items to increase STM capacity.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity; potentially permanent.

Explicit (declarative) memory

Conscious memory of facts and events.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal events.

Semantic memory

General knowledge and facts.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Unconscious memory for skills and habits.

Procedural memory

How to do things (skills/habits).

Priming

Unconscious influence of prior exposure on response.