Chapter 1

Comprehensive vocabulary terms and definitions covering human development, research methodology, and psychological theories based on the lecture transcript.

application

process of translating evidence-based research and ideas into practical solutions to influence and improve human life

associative learning

learning process in which the repeated presentation of two stimuli results in the linking of the two stimuli, making the meanings synonymous

attachment

enduring, emotionally significant bond that forms between two individuals, often in a caregiving context

attrition

gradual loss or dropout of participants from your original pool

behavioral genetics

field of inquiry most directly concerned with exploring the intersection between nature and nurture, with an aim toward determining the degree to which behavior and development are driven by genetic influences

behaviorist perspective

perspective, also known as learning theory, that focuses on the role the environment plays in influencing behavior and behavioral change.

case study

investigation where a great amount of detail is gathered about one or more individuals of interest with the aim of gaining a thorough understanding of each person

child study movement

social and historical consensus that combined several interests to focus the scientific community's interest on child development

chronosystem

idea that all other contexts within the ecological systems model are moving and changing through historical time

classical conditioning

learning process whereby a previously neutral or meaningless stimulus, via accidental or intentional pairing with a natural stimulus takes on the same meaning for the learner as the natural stimulus

cohort effect

idea that people live, interact and develop within a similar time period

conditioned stimulus

previously neutral or meaningless stimulus (an environmental trigger)

continuous development

gradual day-by-day or week-over-week progression of change

correlation

statistical technique used to determine degree of relation or association among two or more variables

critical period

developmental age range in which certain experiences are required for the development of a psychological or physical ability

cross-sectional design

type of developmental research where groups of participants composed of different ages are studied at a single point in time

cross-sequential design

type of developmental research that combines the benefits of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

culture

set of adaptations to the physical and social world that have shared meaning for a group and are transmitted across generations

dependent variable

resulting outcome behavior that is measured in an experiment; depends on another variable

discontinuous development

changes in kind, form or degree that do not directly follow from what came before

ecological systems model

proposes that a person's development is shaped by different layers of their environment, from their immediate family and friends to their broader culture and society

epigenetics

process by which environmental influences can modify an individual's genetic expression

ethnicity

one's cultural and/or national heritage

ethnoracial

term combining the elements of race and ethnicity

ethology

study of animal behavior

evolutionary psychology

looks to the theory of natural selection to explain the emergence, development and persistence of various psychological characteristics in humans

exosystem

social and physical settings (contexts) in the ecological systems model that indirectly impact the developing individual and are even further removed from the immediate experience or even knowledge of the individual

experimental method

research design used to determine cause-and-effect relationships including specific design requirements

external validity

degree to which an experiment's results and reality match

gender

ideas society has about the roles, attitudes and behaviors associated with one's sex assignment

gender identity

an individual's psychological sense of their gender, including ideas about masculinity, femininity, non-binary and other dimensions

gene-environment correlation

the complex interplay between our genes and the environments we experience in contributing to development

heritability estimate

extent to which a genetic component explains difference

human development

scientific perspective that incorporates a multidisciplinary approach to understanding the development process

hypothesis

testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct; often worded as an if-then statement

independent variable

variable that is altered in an experiment and is expected or implied to be the cause of or influence some outcome behavior

informed consent

process whereby study participants are fully informed of the purpose of the study, what will be required of their participation, potential risks, including any harms, and what the benefits to science and themselves are anticipated to be

kinship study

method of studying naturally-occurring variation in genetic similarities of individuals and comparing that information with what we know about the degree of similarity or dissimilarity in the environments of these same individuals

lifespan development

scientific study of growth, change and stability in humans from conception until death

longitudinal design

type of developmental research where a group of participants are followed over a period of time, and reassessed at various points

macrosystem

set of contexts in the ecological systems model that contain all the beliefs and ideologies of one's culture

maturation

growth and change in an individual based on underlying biological processes

mesosystem

interactions in the ecological systems model between the microsystem contexts that do not directly involve the developing individual

microsystem

distinct contexts (environmental settings) in the ecological systems model wherein individual development occurs via direct interaction

naturalistic observation

observation of research participants in real-life settings

nature and nurture

psychologists' way of recognizing that most development has both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) sources of influence

normative

identification of typical or expected developments across the lifespan

observational learning

set of principles that outline the way in which learning can occur through the social act of observing others who are themselves undergoing learning

operant conditioning

learning process whereby feedback from the environment shapes an individual's behavior

private speech

self-talk, in particular to guide progress on a difficult task

psychology

scientific study of the mind and all the behavior it produces

psychosocial crisis

age-based developmental challenge posed by society

psychosocial theory of development

theory that views human development occurring in stepwise fashion as a result of resolving age-graded challenges posed by the social environment

punishment

process of applying a consequence that has as its effect the decreased frequency of that behavior

quasi-experimental design

research method that seeks to determine the relationship between independent and dependent variables by studying conditions as they arise through the natural course of life

race

socially constructed concept that is a highly variable mix of physical characteristics, heritage, culture of origin, and self and other identification

random assignment

process whereby each participant has an equal chance of being placed in each condition

reaction range

idea that for many of our characteristics, our genes likely set parameters such as minimal and maximum levels of particular traits, behaviors or abilities, as well as how sensitive the development of these are to environmental forces

regression

process of moving backward to an early stage or lower capability

reinforcement

process of applying a consequence that has as its effect the increased frequency of that behavior

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

religion

formal system of beliefs, values, and practices organized around the worship of a higher being or power

religiosity

religious behaviors, such as praying, giving money to a place of worship or religious organization, and being active within a religious community

representative sample

sample of participants that accurately reflects, or represents, the group of people we are making conclusions about

resilience

an individual's capacity for and "process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or even significant sources of stress" (APA, 2014)

scaffolding

helping learners achieve beyond their current level, with a gradual withdrawing of such support

sensitive period

age range when the development of a characteristic is particularly open to inputs and influences from the environment

sex

one's assignment as male, female, or intersex based on one's biological anatomy and physiology

sexual orientation

includes sexual identity, sexual behavior, and sexual attraction, or to whom someone is sexually attracted

shaping

learning process where successive approximations of a desired target behavior are reinforced thereby producing progressively more complex behavior

society

recognized group of people who live within a formal system of rules and institutions

sociocultural theory of cognitive development

view of cognitive development that emphasizes the embeddedness of the development of thinking abilities within the social and cultural context of the individual

socioeconomic status (SES)

measure of one's position in society and level of access to resources

spirituality

individual's personal search for the sacred

stability

state in which characteristics and abilities remain the same or function similarly across broad portions of the lifespan

stage theory

explanation for brief periods of rapid development following longer stretches of stability

stage theory of cognitive development

theory that children's thinking skills change in distinct steps or stages as they grow, with each stage building on the previous one

structured observation

type of observation where people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

third variable problem

idea that another variable, one you did not measure, is what is actually independently influencing the two variables you did study

twin study

type of kinship study in which the correspondence between the genetic relatedness of twins specifically (both identical and fraternal) and resulting psychological characteristics are examined

unconditioned stimulus

environmental trigger that has inherent meaning that does not have to be learned

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

notion that there are concepts and ideas just beyond our current abilities that we are ready to learn and master, if only we had a little help, often in the form of others