Psych Research & Stats 1 EXAM 1

vocab

Method of Tenacity

Info accepted as true bc it has been believed or bc superstition or habit supports it

Method of Intuition

Info accepted on the basis of a hunch/ feeling

Method of Authority

faith involved, relies on info/answers from an expert in the field, quick way to get answers

Method of Rationale

An argument (set of premise statements) that is logically combined to yield a conclusion

Empirical Method

Empiricism, answering questions by direct sensory observation or personal experience

The Scientific Method

1. Observe phenomena

2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)

3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction

4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic observations

5. Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the hypothesis

Induction

(increase) A small set of specific observations is the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations

Deduction

(decrease) A general statement is the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.

Variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals

Hypothesis

Principles of the Scientific Method (Empirical)

Answers are obtained by making structured or
systematic observations

Principles of the Scientific Method (Public)

Observations are available for evaluation by others

Principles of the Scientific Method (Objective)

Outcome is not skewed by bias

Science

Basis of scientific research. Evidence is gathered from careful, systematic, and objective observations

Pseudoscience

a system of ideas often presented as
science. Lacks some of the key components essential to scientific research

Quantitative Research

produces numerical scores. Submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation

Qualitative Research

It is based on making observations. Summarized and interpreted in a narrative report

The literature

The body of information published worldwide

Characteristics of good hypothesis

logical, testable, refutable, positive

Constructs

intangible, abstract attributes. Hypothetical entities created from theory and speculation

Operational Definitions

created for variables that cannot be observed or measured directly. NOT a construct

Validity and Reliability

defined and evaluated by the consistency of the relationship between measurement sets.

Positive Relationship

The measurements change together in the same direction

Negative Relationship

The measures vary in opposite directions

Consistent positive (+) relationship

Coefficient value near +1.00

Consistent negative (−) relationship

Coefficient value near −1.00

Inconsistent relationship

+/− coefficient value close to 0.0

Validity

The procedure must accurately capture the variable it is designed to measure

Face Validity

Most straightforward, least scientific. Does an instrument superficially appear to assess what
it claims to measure?

Construct Validity

the degree to a measure is correlated with measures of the same construct and not correlated with measures of a different construct

Convergent (Concurrent) Validity

measure correlates with similar measures or measures of the same construct

Discriminant Validity

the extent to which a measure doesn’t correlate with different, unrelated measures

Criterion Validity

does your accurately predict a particular outcome

Concurrent Validity

measure of interest and outcome variable
assessed at the same time

Predictive Validity

measure of interest assessed before outcome variable is administered

Divergent Validity

Little to no relationship is shown between measurements of different constructs

Reliability

he stability or consistency of the measurements produced by a specific measurement procedure

Measurement Inconsistency

related to error

Sources for Measurement Error

Observer error, environmental change, participant changes

Test-retest Reliability

compares scores of two successive measurements of the same individuals and correlates the scores

Parallel Forms Reliability

involves using different test versions

Inter-rater Reliability

The level of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors

Cronbach’s Alpha

correlation among the items

Split-half Reliability

assessed by a procedure that involves: splitting the test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and calculating the consistency between the two scores for a group of participants

Reliability

the prerequisite for validity

Scale of Measurement

refers to the set of classification categories

Nominal Scale

Represents qualitative differences in the variable measured

Ordinal Scale

Represents qualitative differences in the variable measured

Interval and Ratio Scales

These scales have equal intervals (think inches on a ruler) A ratio scale has a true zero value.

Self-reported Measures

ask participants direct questions to study behavior. Provides a direct measure, but validity is dubious

Physiological Measures

based on assumed manifestations of the underlying construct. They can provide objective assessments. They require expensive equipment. They may not measure constructs validly.

Behavioral Measures

based on activities that can be observed and measured. They provide researchers with many options

Range Effect

A measurement procedure is insufficiently sensitive to detect a difference

Ceiling Effect

Scores cluster at the high end of the scale. Allows little or no possibility of increases in value
Floor effect: Scores cluster at the low end of a scale. Allows little or no possibility of decreases in value

ethics determine…

• The measurement techniques that may be used
• How to select participants
• Research strategies that may be used
• Research designs that may be used
• How to perform the study
• How to analyze data
• How to report results

what are the 2 basic categories of ethical responsibility

Ensuring the welfare and dignity of participants and subjects
• Promoting accuracy in reporting of results

Nuremberg Code (1947)

This code comprises ten guidelines for the ethical
treatment of human subjects in research

Declaration of Helsinki (1964)

This declaration provided international ethics
guidelines for medical research

US Surgeon General (late 1960s)

This government office ordered federally funded
research proposals from the Public Health Service to be reviewed for ethical treatment of subjects

National Research Act (1974)

This act mandated regulations for the protection of
subjects

Belmont Report (1974)

This report contains respect for persons, beneficence, and justice principles

No Harm

Subjects must be protected from physical or psychological harm

Informed Consent

Participants must be informed (preferably using a paper or electronic consent form) of all available information about the study.

Deception

Deception may be allowed. It is employed in two forms.
• Passive deception (or omission)
• Active deception (or commission)

Confidentiality

This condition is insured through anonymity. It covers: Performance measures, attitudes and opinions, demographic characteristics

IRB (International Review Board)

It is composed of scientists and nonscientists. It is tasked to examine proposed research involving humans. Its members review research proposals according to seven criteria.

7 basic IRB criteria

• Minimization of risk to participants
• Reasonable risk in relation to benefits
• Equitable selection
• Informed consent
• Documentation of informed consent
• Data monitoring
• Privacy and confidentiality

Fraud

refers to the explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data (rather than an error)

Plagiarism

the unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own.