4.3.1 Issues and Debates

Cultural Bias

the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviour through the lens/viewpoint of one's own culture.

WEIRD samples

W = wester

E = educated

I = Industrialised

R = rich

D = democratic

most psychologists use WEIRD samples to come up with theories of human behaviour + often conclude they have facts abonut behaviour that are 'universal'.

Why is it a problem to use these WEIRD samples?

1. cultural differences are ignored.

Beta bias = cultural differences are ignored/overlooked

2. leads to one culture being devalued, judged, or different in comparison, as the Western values are used for a basis of judgement

Alpha bias = culture differences are exaggerated and therefore one may be devalued compared to another.

Ethnocentrism

form of culture bias - when we use our own culture group as a basis on judgement against other groups

- there is a tendency to view our own beliefs and behaviours as normal and even superior, whereas those of other groups are strange and deviant

- involves evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one's own culture --> can lead to aview that ones own culture is superior which lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

Etic Approach

looks at behaviour outside a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal

Emic Approach

looking at behaviour inside a given culture e.g living and studying in that country you are investigating

Imposed Etic

when a cultural norm/specific idea is imposed on another culture.

this can involve studying behaviour in your own culture and then assuming that this is ideal behaviour that can be applied universally.

Give examples of ethnocentrism and imposed etic

Ainsworth Strange Situation:

- based in America

- norms of western parenting imposed on other cultures

- all other cultures of attachment behaviours compared to American standards (ethnocentrism)

- led to prejudice and shame for hte parents with children without secure attachments

Yerkes Intelligence Tests

- designed a test that assessed innate intelligence

- required knowledge of american culture e.g sport/crisco therefore others judged against USA norms

- Western = against the clock and mental quickness whereas Uganda preferred slow and steady, as quick = thoughtlessness for them

- led to negative stereotypes of people outside of USA being 'less intelligent' --> led to discrimination and prejudice

How can research reduce culture bias? (acronym only)

CRISSE

(C)RISSE

Cross cultural research

- carry out research cross culturally rather than just 1

- recognises culture specific norms

- e.g Milgram could've used many countries for obedience

C(R)ISSE

Representative samples

- use representative samples (not WEIRD) and don't attempt to apply findings to people not represented in research

- e.g random sampling represents whole culture population rather than WEIRD samples

CR(I)SSE

Immersion

- use researchers who are native or familiar with the culture.

- immerse yourself in culture and stay in culture for a long period

- e.g more understanding of cultural specific norms and standards making an imposed etic unlikely

CRI(S)SE

Standards

- do not assume universal standards across cultures

- e.g S.S assumed all the cultures had same norms of secure attachments: should have developed culturally specific standards for each attachment type

CRIS(S)E

Sensitive

- be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research pr reporting findings

- e.g don't assume cultural norms for one is the same everywhere else

CRISS(E)

Emic Approach

- take this approach which functions from within a specific culture and identifies culturally specific behaviour

- e.g research conducted within a culture rather than from outside helps to ensure research is sensitive to culturally specific norms

AO3 - distinction between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism

Another way to address culture bias is through the distinction between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.

ethnocentrism means in the world from only one own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct, maybe even superior.

ethnocentrism is often an inadvertent lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one's own.

culture relativism insists that behaviour can be properly understood if only the cultural context is taken into consideration.

therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context e.g Ainsworth's strange situation, where she applied her findings of secure and insecure attachments onto the rest of the world from a Western, individualist culture such as USA or UK, and then generalising those findings to all people everywhere, is suspect.

AO3: recognise culture bias

One way to deal with culture bias is to recognise it when it occurs.

Smith and bond found that in the 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology, 66% of the studies were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world.

This suggests that a lot of psychological research is a very unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by simply selecting different cultural groups to study.

e.g Asch's study of conformity - all male american students.

AO3 - culturally biased research can have serious irl effects

Culturally biased research can have significant real world effects, for example, amplifying invalidating damaging stereotypes that ultimately leads to prejudice and discrimination.

The US army use an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased towards the dominant white majority in America. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this has a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans towards this group of people, which highlights a negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

Surely this is too damaging for both the reputation of psychologists as well as groups of people affected by such research? So why is there so much of it?

AO3 - contemporary psychologists

Contemporary psychologists are significantly more open-minded and well travelled than previously. They have an increased understanding of other cultures of personal and professional level.

For example, international psychology conferences increased the exchange of ideas between psychology which has helped reduce ethnocentrism in psychology and enabled a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism.

AO3 - indigenous psychologies

This heightened awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of indigenous psychology is: theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural context.

One example is Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa theories about the must recognise the African context of behaviours and attitudes.

This matters because it has led to the emergence of theories are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only in Africa, but also shadows far removed from the African origins.

The development of indigenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of cultural relativism, but there are limitations as well: are Afrocentric theories not as culturally biased as those they claim to replace?

What is bias?

the tendency to treat 1 individual or group in a different way from others. Psychological research/theories may offer a view that doesn't justifiably represent the exp + behaviour of men/women (usually women)

Gender bias

the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences.

failure to consider adequately differences between men and women can lead to gender bias

historically in psychology there has been predominance of research based on samples of men

Androcentrism

research is centred on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.

can result in beta bias meaning people assume that what is true for men is also true for women, therefore mistakenly minimising the differences between men and women.

Alpha bias

differences between the sexes are exaggerated and over estimated

differences are presented as fixed and inevitable

theories that suffer from this devalue one gender in comparison to another

Beta bias

ignores, minimises, underestimates differences between men and women

often occurs when females are not included in the research process (any example of all male samples) and it's assumed that the findings apply equally to both sexes

Examples of research suffering from gender bias: moral development

Kohlberg

proposed a stage theory of moral development based on a longitudinal study of American men. asked men and boys to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations that were related to fairness. then used this to come up with a moral development theory

beta bias --> based moral development from american men's findings and minimised the difference between the sexes thus comparing universal feminine behaviours to male standards will not accurately represent women (androcentrism)

alpha bias --> the differences between the sexes are exaggerated due to the biased standards of moral development equipped to men. gender differences = fixed therefore devalues women. beta bias led to alpha bias

Examples of research suffering from gender bias: flight/fight

research was conducted on male animals because in females, the variations in hormones would make research more difficult.

it was assumed that male only samples wouldn't matter because it was assumed what was true for men would be true for women.

Taylor 2000 challenged this view and provided evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response (tending to offspring and forming defensive networks with other females) at times of stress which is adaptive because it ensures the survival of their offspring

beta bias --> assumed what was true for males was true for females therefore minimising the gender differences

cased assumptions that universal responses to stressful situations were fight/flight, ignoring any other response that would've arised if both genders were studied

- led to an misunderstanding of the female stress response

Examples of research suffering from gender bias: Freud

Freud's theory argued that because a girl does not experience castration anxiety, she is not under the same pressure to form an identification with the same sex parent.

this results in a weaker superego than men, and therefore her sense of morality is inferior to males

Freud saw femininity as an expression of failed masculinity. he sought to explain female 'vanity' as a defence mechanism: women which to make up for their own sexual inferiority to men by focusing on their physical charms.

alpha bias --> exaggerated gender difference and devaluing female morality + inferior compared to men

What are the consequences of gender bias/implications?

creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour

fails to challenge negative stereotypes e.g 'women aren't as ____ as men'

may provide scientific justification to deny women opportunities within wider society

therefore, not just a research problem but can have damaging consequences which affects lives and prospects of women.

AO3 - feminist psychology

one way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective.

feminist psychology = assumed that women are worthwhile human beings in their own right, and assumed that social change is needed to improve women's position.

it attempts to redress the imbalances in theory or research

socially determined gender stereotypes make greater contribution to perceived gender differences than biological

uses evidence that women are inferior to develop training programmes (Eagly) to create more female leaders

AO3 - reverse alpha bias

another approach to develop the theories that show the differences between men and women is to emphasise the value of women.

seen in feminist research which shows instances where women are better than men - women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised.

such research challenges the stereotype that in any gender differences the male position must be better and changes people's preconceptions

AO3 - avoiding beta bias in gender

beta bias - minimising differences between sexes has consequences for women. on the posiive side, equal treatment under the law haws allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities

howveer, Hare-Mustin and Marecek point outb that arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women's special needs, and from differences in power between men adn women.

in a society where one group holds most of the power, seemingly neutral actions ends up benefitting the group with the power. e.g equal parental leave ignores the bio. demands of pregnancy, child birth, breast feeding, and the special needs of women, therefore disadvantaging them.

`AO3 - assumptions of men and women need to be challenged

examples of gender bias continue unchallenged in many theories. e.g Darwin's theory of sexual selection portrays women as choosy and males as the ones who compete to be chosen. it pays, in terms of reproductive success, for females to be more selective because the costs (to produce eggs) are high.

this has been used to explain coyness as a means of masking their interest for males when they are making their choices. in contrast, males are more explicit in pursuit of the opposite sex cos they're in competition w/ each other

this view has been recently challenged as being rooted in Victorian ideas that women are coy and men are aggressive with other male competitors. it has been recognised that women are equally as competitive and aggressive when the need arises.

for example, DNA evidence supports the idea that it is a good adaptive strategy for females to mate with more than one man. this puts females in competition with other females.

What is the nature-nurture debate?

the argument as to whether a person's behaviour is governed by innate factors (nature) or by environmental factors (nurture). the debate focuses on the relative contribution each of these influences has on behaviour.

What is nature?

behaviour is seen to be a product of innate biological/genetic factors

nativists believe human characteristics are innate and a result of heredity

family/twin/adoptee studies have been used to provide evidence for the role of heredity

What is nurture?

behaviour is a product of our environmental influences

Locke argued the mind is tabula rasa - a blank slate at birth (an important feature of the behaviourist approach)

What approach is linked on the linear scale of nature -> nurture

Nature ----> Nurture

biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, behaviourist

biological = OCD + Aggression

- MZ twins = 68%

- DZ twins 31%

MAOM gene --> linked to high levels of aggression

cognitive = innate processing abilities are refined by experience

psychodynamic = instinct, drives (nature)

- influenced by childhood (nurture)

middle = Sz + aggression

- need gene AND high EE (expression emotion): hostile environment to trigger it

- found higher rates of aggression in people w/ MAOM variant AND mistreated as a child.

humanistic = influence of basic psychological needs

- main focus is a person's exp of environment

behaviourist = phobias, aggression

- Little Albert

- Bobo Doll study (SLT)

What is the interactionist approach?

focuses on the idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to try separate the two. instead, researchers focus on how they interact and influence each other.

works together rather in opposition

examples: diathesis stress model

Example of an interactionist approach = PKU

PKU is rare but potentially serious inherited disorder

body can't break down protein in foods such as meat and fish into amino acids which them builds up in the brain and blood - can lead to brain damage

if confirmed at birth, treatment will be given right away to reduce serious complications e.g special diet and regular blood tests

shows you're born with the gene that determines PKU

environment = prevention e.g not eating meat

this is because PKU is genetic (nature) however, whether the diseases cause/damage depends on your environment (nurture) e.g low protein diet

Example of an interactionist approach = Maguire taxi driver study

Maguire studied the brains of london taxi drivers using an MRI and found significantly more grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than in the matched control group

positive correlation of how pronounced the structural difference is and the longer they've worked as a taxi driver

shows your nature determines brain structure, but also shows your environment (nurture) also influences ur brain structure (hippocampus) as an environment with lots of navigation experience results in changes to nature (hippocamp. size)

Models of the interactionism

diathesis stress model

model of mental illness which emphasises the interaction between nature and nurture. argues psychopathology is caused by a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when there is an environmental trigger (stress)

supported by research into Sz

- Tienari studied finnish adoptees and found those most likely to develop sz were those w/ bio. relatives w/ sz and dysfunctional relationships with adoptive families

(supporting that a disorder such as sz results from an interaction between genetics and environment)

What is constructivism?

this elaborates on the interaction between nature and nurture by arguing that people created their own nurture by actively seeking out environments which are appropriate for their nature.

Plomin referred to this as niche-picking

What is niche picking?

deliberately seeking environments that fit one's heredity

e.g good at maths = chooses logical toys

or aggressive child will feel more comfortable around children who shows similar behaviour therefore will select environment accordingly

Interactionism - Scarr and McCartney: Passive gene environment interaction

parents pass on genes and also provide an environment both of which influence the child's development

- highly intelligent parents are likely to pass on genes for intelligence to their children

- more likely to provide high levels of cognitive stimulation and a good education

- correlated genetic and environmental influences both increase the likelihood that their child will be highly intelligent

Interactionism - Scarr and McCartney: Evocative gene-environment interaction

heritable traits influence the reaction of others and hence the environment provided by others

e.g a shy child may be less fun to other children, making other children less likely to want to spend time with them - may result in the child becoming more socially withdrawn

Interactionism - Scarr and McCartney: Active gene environment interaction

a child's heritable traits influence their choice of environment

e.g aggressive child may choose to watch violent films and engage in contact sports

fits best with Plomin's niche picking

AO3 - nature nurture debate: interactionism

one issue is that nature and nurture cannot be separated. this is because in reality, both sides of the argument interact to explain human behaviour

for example, a disorder called PKU is inherited (nature) but if it is detected at birth then the disorder can be prevented from causing brain damage through a controlled diet (nurture).

PKU demonstrates that behaviour is a result of both nature and nurture, both interacting to determine how the disease progresses

it would be silly to separate them as they are so closely linked, thus it is clear that an interactionist approach should be used as behaviour cannot be explained by nature or nurture exclusively.

AO3 - nature nurture debate: niche picking

Another consideration to the debate is that nature has the influence over nurture. Genes may have an indirect effect on our environment.

For example, a genetically aggressive child may feel more comfortable around children showing similar behaviours. Consequently, this environment will then affect their development.

The influence of nature (genes) on our nurture (environment) can be shown through Plomin's idea of niche picking. This is the belief that an individual will construct their environment to suit their abilities.

AO3 - nature nurture debate: plasticity

Furthermore the idea that nature influences nurture may actually be the other way round.

The influence of nurture on nature can be shown through neural plasticity. The experiences you have influence the structure of your brain due to plasticity.

Maguire taxi study shows that the larger hippocampus is due to extensive spatial navigation.

AO3 - nature nurture debate: genes switched on and off

Another field of research is epigenetics. This looks at how the expression of genes influence by environment. There is material in each of our cells that act like switches, environment such as nutrition and stress can control the switches. Most importantly these switches can be passed on to subsequent generations

Epigenetics show that genes and environment are less separate than we thought, and they interact with each other.

It shows how much nurture can influence nature and how genes are expressed. DNA is not only nature

What is determinism?

The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. our behaviour is predictable.

'fatalistic'

fits aims and features of science

What is free will?

The idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined

although we still may be influenced by forces, our behaviour is under our control. we are ably to reject these forces as we are masters of our own destiny.

What is hard and soft determinism?

the view that forces outside of our control e.g biology shape our behaviour. hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will

this is the view that our behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain extent and there is an element of free will in our behaviour i.e our conscious choices also influence behaviour.

- compromised position = element of free will

What is biological determinism?

the belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control

- biological approach

What is environmental determinism?

the view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning (including reinforcement and punishment).

- behaviourist approach

What is psychic determinism?

claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (ID, ego, superego) and fixation at psychosexual stages as in Freud's model of psychological development that we cannot control.

trauma/childhood = unconscious drives/conflicts

may appear in symbolic behaviour

determined by defence mechanisms e.g repression of conflicts

fixation at psychosexual stages e.g oral (smoking/pen-chewing)

unresolved oedipus/electra complex - lead to later problems

psychodynamic approach

psychic determinism - example application

lot of emphasis on our drives and instincts

behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood(defence mechanisms)

slip of the tongue = underlying authority of the unconscious

no such thing as an accident

biological determinism - example application

our actions are determined by out genetics e.g neurological and physical processes are not under out control (aggression and sz = genes

during stress/anxiety, out actions are influenced by the ANS, hormones, etc

higher levels of testosterone = more aggressive

environmental determinism - example application

previous reinforcement - positive + negative

conditioning and sum of reinforcement contingencies

shaped by socialisation --> parents and school around us are agents of socialisation

skinner = illusion of free will

Which approach links to hard and soft determinism?

Behaviourist = hard

- free will is an illusion

Cognitive = soft

- limited by innate processing ability but we have some control over thoughts as thoughts mediate behaviour

Biological = hard

- solely controlled by biological factors

Psychodynamic = hard

- behaviour controlled by unconscious drives and instincts that we have no control over

Humanistic = FREE WILL

- able to reject external and internal forces and are in ultimate control of our behaviour.

AO3: determinism strengths

consistent with the aims of science and allows causal explanations of human behaviour to be established.

- if behaviour is seen as predictable, this allows the theories to be developed, and in particular, treatment.

- e.g drugs to manage/treat sz

disorders, especially those characterised by a loss of control over thoughts such as sz casts doubt on the idea of free will (no one would choose to have sz)

- mental disorders 'fit' with a deterministic stance

AO3: determinism weaknesses

it is incompatible with the legal justice system as this works on the basis of holding people accountable for their behaviour i.e assumes free will

- stephen mobley case: 'born to kill' when shooting a 25 year old college student (MAOA gene) i.e warrior gene

- rejected and given the death penalty

- ben waldroup case: successfully argued that this behaviour was largely determined by the MAOA-L gene and abusive childhood

- 'a bad gene is a bad gene'

- leaves a distaste for CJS and can invalidate victims and reduce sentences if determinism becomes a valid excuse to behaviour eg aggression.

AO3: free will strengths

has face validity

- idea that on the surface, it looks right (we all feel we have it)

- everyday experiences would suggest we are making conscious choices i.e makes cognitive sense

a belief in free will seems to be more beneficial to someone believing their behaviour is determined than someone believing their behaviour is determined

- roberts (2000) found teens with external LOC were at a greater risk of depression significantly

AO3: free will weaknesses

research against free will

- libert et al: neurological studies on decision making have revealed evidence against free will

- recorded activity in motor cortex before the person had conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger

- further studies found that activity in pre-frontal cortex up to 10s before a person was aware of this decision to press the button

free will is an illusion: we feel we are making a decision but movement is already determined by brain activity

- however, others argue that the brain activity is simply a readiness to act rather than intention to move.

Reductionism

the belief that human behaviour is best understood by breaking down complex behaviour into smaller parts

- based on the scientific idea of parsimony, the idea that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles

- simplest explanation = the best

Holism

the belief that it only makes sense to study behaviour as a whole

- looking at simple components only provides a limited view and lacks meaning

Levels of explanation - reductionism

highest level - social + cultural, groups etc. (NOT HOLISM!!)

middle level - psychological (cognitive environment)

lowest level - biological (genetics, brain structure etc)

Levels of explanation applied to memory

H - bartlett's work, expectations affect recall

M - cap of STM + duration

L - Maguire taxi study

Levels of explanation applied to Aggression

H - cultural explanations e.g north america

M - positive reinforcement (Bobo doll)

L - MAOA-L gene + high levels of testosterone

Levels of explanation applied to OCD

H - repetitive hand washing = odd

M - obsessive thoughts (irrational)

L - low serotonin levels + hyperactive basal ganglia

Types of reductionism

Biological

- attempts to explain behaviour at a lower level e.g genes, NTs etc. this is the assumption of the bio app

Environmental

- attempts to explain behaviour in terms of stimulus - response, learned through the behaviourist approach. not concerned with cognitive approach

AO3: reductionism strengths

seen as scientific

- breaking down behaviour into constituent parts allows experiments and observations to be conducted w/ operationalised variables

- establishes causal explanation

focused on scientific methods gives psych more credibility as it is on equal terms with other reductionist sciences

allows for development of drug therapies

- becomes possible with a reductionist approach

- looking at behaviours as a result of small components (e.g NTs and hormones)

AO3: reductionism weaknesses

oversimplifying complex behaviour

- errors in understanding behaviour, loses meaning without context. ignores complexity of human behaviour

- drug therapies are based on the lowest levels of explaining behaviour, therefore they treat the SYMPTOMS not the CASE, the how not the why

biological reductionism has no appreciation of the social or psychological factors/context as it reduces behaviour to the simplest possible level.

AO3: holism strengths

holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour

- e.g zimbardo's findings can only be understood by looking at the social context + interaction between people and behaviour of a group

holistic explanations appreciate the complexity of human behaviour

AO3: holism weaknesses

tend not to lead themselves to rigorous testing and can become vague + speculative as they become more complex

- e.g humanistic psychology which takes a holistic app to behaviour is criticised for its lack of empirical vidence

- just a loose set of concepts

higher level of explanations that combine many diff perspectives present researchers with a practical dilemma.

- if we accept that there are many factors that contribute to xyz, it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential and what to use for intervention etc.

- this suggests lower level explanations may be more appropriate.

reduction vs holism - conclusion

interactionist approach

considers how diff levels of explanations combine and interact to produce behaviour (e.g diathesis stress model)

leads to more disciplinary/holistic approach to treatment. drugs or CBT

Idiographic approach

focuses on the individual to understand behaviour e.g case studies

- aims to study people as unique beings, taking into account their subjective experiences

- not possible to develop a general law of human behaviour as a whole due to free-will and each person being unique

e.g humanistic: considers whole person, behaviour = unpredictable and everyone is unique

Idiographic: types of research methods used

qualitative methods:

- case studies

- unstructured interviews

- thematic analysis

provides in depth analysis and insight into the individual

Nomothetic approach

focuses on studying a large number of people

- can make generalisations about behaviour + theories of behaviour

- provide a benchmark so that behaviour can be predicted and controlled i.e through treatments

- considered to be more scientific than idiographic approaches

e.g biological: large samples to come up with general laws/theories of behaviour. scale studies investigating hormones and aggression for example

behaviourist: makes general laws of learning (c.c)

Nomothetic: types of research methods used

quantitative methods:

- experiments

- correlational data

- psychometric testing (personality)

- large scale questionnaires

gathers and analyses very large samples to general general laws and theories

-can be used to predict behaviour ad therefore change/treat them

AO3: idiographic strengths

provides an in-depth, complete account of an individual

- rather than focusing on measurements, it allowed psych to bring the focus back to what it means to be human

can help refine/refute a nomothetic approach eg case studies such as KF can help refine theories of STM, challenge MSM, but improve WMM

AO3: idiographic weaknesses

the methos used within this approach tend to be the lease scientific

- often rely on subjective interpretation of the researcher and therefore are open to researcher bias

very time consuming for the outcomes achieved

- large amounts of data are collected but only about one person, whereas the other approach still collects large amounts of data but on lots of people with a method that can usually be processed quicker

AO3: nomothetic strengths

helped psych as a whole become scientific by developing laws and theories which can be empirically tested

- helped to make predictions about behaviour which has been useful e.g developing drugs to treat mental illness

- too time-consuming to produce therapies that are unique to individuals

scientific:

- leads to quantitative data which can statistically analysed

- leads to empirical evidence which can be the basis of theories and laws

- scientific evidence/theories can then be used to predict behaviour and lead to irl applications e.g therapies, treatment and interventions.

AO3: nomothetic weaknesses

loses sight of the whole person

- gives a superficial understanding of human beings.

- two people may behave the same but for an entirely different reason.

- additionally, two people may score the same on the test but have totally different answers therefore this approach to behaviour lacks meaning.

idiographic vs nomothetic conclusion

complementary rather than contradictory

- INTERACTIONIST APPROACH i.e an idiographic approach can further develop a nomothetic one.

Socially sensitive research

any research that might have direct social consequences for the ppts in the research or the wider group of people they represent

e.f influencing public policy or public perceptions/stereotypes of a particular group

Where in the research process may ethical issues with social consequences occur? (brief)

Sieber and Stanley outlined 4 aspects of the research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research.

research question

conduct of research and treatment of ppts

institutional context

interpretation and application of findings

social consequences: the research question

research must consider question phrasing carefully

asking questions e.g racial differences in IQ may be damaging to members of a particular group

social consequences: conduct of research and treatment of ppts

researcher needs to consider treatment of ppts + right to confidentiality and anonymity

e.g if someone admits to committing a crime, should the researcher remain confidentiality??

for SSR, ethics are more important (confidentiality)

social consequences: institutional context

should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research.

if the research is funded by a private institution/organisation, why are they funded and how do they intend to use this funding

social consequences: interpretation and application of findings

needs to consider how findings might be interpreted and used

- applied in real world

- could results be used to inform policy?

- researchers should be proactive in how their research is used and interpreted.

example of socially sensitive research

Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis

- argued separation from mum should be avoided as it can lead to deprivation, which leads to low IQ, faulty IWM, and affectionless psychopathy

affects the parents who were working/considering going back to work. shame is implied if they are back at work

influences policy of childcare e.g discouraged women to go back to work, promote stay at home mothers, no free childcare places for children under 5.

positive changes to hospital visiting hours (increased) to allow open access for parents with children.

research was NOT VALID - not replicated, small sample, diagnosed A.P himself.

AO3: socially sensitive research - considerations

The considerations outlined by Sieber and Stanley provide a mechanism to safeguard individuals who are indirectly affected by psychological research.

Because of the problems associated with socially sensitive research it is not sufficient to simply safeguard the interest of the participants taking part in the research.

For example, the current guidelines do not require researchers to consider how their findings maybe used by other people or institutions to form and or shape public social policy.

Sieber and Stanley recommend that researcher should consider these when interpreting and applying their findings to ensure that psychological research does no indirect harm to other members of society.

AO3: socially sensitive research - issues

However socially sensitive research can lead to issues of discrimination and therefore some psychologist would argue against conducting this form of research. For example, research examining racial differences and an IQ have been used to justify new and often unwanted forms of social control.

For example between 1907 and 1963, over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilised under eugenic legislation in the US. In 1972, the United States Senate committee revealed that at least 2000 and involuntary sterilisations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge.

This could be justified by flawed research findings e.g. Robert Yerkes which argued that black Americans had a lower IQ scores in comparison to white Americans, highlighting a serious issue with socially sensitive research.

AO3: socially sensitive research - steer clear but should be proactive

The issues with conducting socially sensitive research like those highlighted above are why some psychologist simply suggest that we should avoid conducting research like this and steer clear of sensitive topics including race, gender and sexuality. Some psychologists believe that such research could have a negative impact on the participants. However, this would probably leave research as with nothing but trivial questions to investigate. A more acceptable solution might be for psychologist to engage more actively with policy makers after the publication of their findings to help produce the likelihood that data is misused and to ensure that evidence base research is used in socially sensitive ways.

AO3: socially sensitive research - not all is controversial

Finally it is important to recognise that not all socially sensitive research is controversial and some are desirable and beneficial to society.

For example research examining eyewitness testimony, especially the use of child witnesses (e.g Flin et al) has found that young children can be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner.

In this area, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession to help improve the accuracy and validity of children eyewitnesses.