Vert Bio Exam 3 - complete review

Behavior

the action or reaction of individuals in response to a stimulus (foraging, repro, maintainace, pred avoid, exploration)

proximate causes (factors)

machanisms within the individual that operate to make the behavior possible (genetic, development, physioloigical)

ultimate factors

evolutionary causes (why has the animal evoloved those mechanisms, selective advantage)

ethology

study of animal behavior

behavioral ecology

study of the inter-relationships between animal behavior and environment

sociobiology

study of social behavior in animals; evolution, genetics, population biology, ecology

innate behavior

developmentally fixed, instinctive, not based on prior experience (FAPs = fixed aciton pattern)

learning

experienced-based modification of behavior

Maturation

changes in behavior caused by developmental changes in neuromuscular systems (flight)

associative learning

associating one stimulus with another

classical conditioning

associating arbritrary stimulus with reward or punishment

operant conditioning

trial and error learning (training)

importance for senses in vertebrates

being able to detect variability of the environment (define and limit known world)

function of sense organs

monitor the environment, permit evolution of complex behaviors

chemoreceptors

detect smell and taste, most ancestral and universal, smell is more sensitive than taste

taste

taste receptor cells (TRC) located in taste buds, which are located mainly on tongue in mammals but also in other areas that contact food (five basic tastes: sour, salty, bitter, sweet, umami) 

smell

more complex than taste, receptors located in nasal cavity (20,000,000 olfactory receptors in human nose)

important functions of chemical scents

recognition, emotional states, advertisement, orientation

mechanoreceptors

touch/pain, hearing/lateral line, equilibrium

receptors for touch and pain

receptors located in the skin, the receptor is distorted and then local flow of electrial current, then info relayed to CNS, most touch receptors are in the face and limbs, pain receptors may response directly or indirectlu to injury

receptors for pressure and sound

lateral line in fish and aquatic amphibains decects pressure from waves and vibrations in the water, important in schooling (sensory cells in pits and grooves, hair cells in cupula sense pressrue); hearing, sensing vibrations of frequencies (external→fluid→membrane→move sensory cells→nerve impluses to CNS)

balance

vertebrate ear originated as a _______ organ (two small chambers and 3 semicircular canals give info about head position and movement, detect changes in position)

mammalian hearing

ear w/ 3 divisions: outer, middle, and inner ear; outer ear collects sound waves to take to tympanic membrane, middle hear has air filled chamber with 3 bones that amplify the vibrations from tympanic membrane, inner ear has liquid-filled cochlea where hair cells become displaced with vibrations

pitch discrimination and loudness in mammalian hearing

located of hairs stimulated and number of hairs being stimulated

adaptations for hearing

enlarged middle ears, asymmetrical ears

electromagnetic reception

light, heat, electrical/magnetic signals

rods and cones

receptors for light (photoreceptors)

eyeball

3 layers (sclera, choroid, retina)

cornea

transparent, bends light in the eye to have it reach retina

Iris

regulates the opening for light (pupil)

lens

helps to focus the light

retina

contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)

rods

achromatic vision, lower visual acuity, good for vision in dim light, contain rhodopsin

cones

color discrimination, good for seeing in light conditions, contain photopigments to sense red, green, blue

diurnal

many ____ animals can see in color, nocturnal animals are color blind

350 MYA

color vision evolved in vertebrates around _________.

median eye

light sensitive spot on the top of the head in many fish and some reptiles (image forming eyes)

lateral eyes

have monocular vision, no overlap of vision fields of left and right eyes (large vision field but cannot distingush distance)

frontal eyes

binocular vision, large overlap of vision fields, very good depth perception, reduced field of view

adaptation for amphibious fish

two pupils/eye with aquatic and aerial vision

round pupils

only nocturnal or diurnal

vertical pupil

nocturnal and sometimes active during the day

vertical pinhole

Several images, yield great depth of field despite monocular vision

horizontal pupil

Allows wide-angle scanning. Good in wide-open habitats

Nictitating membrane

transparent membrane that helps to clean and prevent the eye drying

pit organs

an organ found on snakes to detect heat

electromagnetic receptors

fish can detect electric signals through a network of electrosensitive cells (fish can emit and recieve these signals)

Major functions of the nervous system

The controlling, regulatory, and communicating sytem in the body; in conjuntion with the endocrine system is to maintain body function and homeostasis (fast-acting)

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nercous system

all peripheral nerves

Neuron

basic cellular unit of the nervous system

Dendrites

branched receptors of the neuron to recieve signals

Axon

long, and carries impluse away from the cell body

Sensory neurons (afferent)

sense the environment and take sensory info to the CNS

Interneurons (99% of all neurons)

Connect neurons together in CNS (intergrate info)

Motor neurons (efferent)

Recieve info from CNS and takes it to effector organs to trigger a response

Characteristics of a nerve impulse

occur in response to stimulus, produced by changes in membrane potential, all-or-none responses, signal intensity is signaled by frequency of impulses

Schwann Cell

Produce insulating mylin sheath to help maintain impulse down the axon

How an impulse is produced

resting potentials (high K+ inside axon and Na+ outside axon maintained by pump), voltage change opens Na+ permeable channels and membrane depolarizes, repolarizes when K+ channels open

Characteristics of nerve propogation

small axons conduct slowly, axons are bigger where fast responses are needed, vertebrates increase propagation speed with myelination (charge propagates by saltatory movement)

Nerve synapse

sites where signals are transmitted from one neuron to another (electrical and chemical)

Electrical synapse

charge flows across “gap-junction”, no time lag (therefore very fast), good for escape reactions

Chemical synapse

use specialized neurotransmitters that diffuse from one membrane to the other to propagate signal

Invertbrate nervous system

not complex, very basic (nerve nets rather than central nervous system)

Vertebrate nervous systems

Nerves interconnecting spinal cord and brain, spinal cord hasn’t changed much over evolution, cerebrum becomes elaborated further down the lineages

increase

Brains ________ with body size (but not a 1:1 ratio)

olfactory

Birds’ _______ region in the brain is greatly reduced

optic

Birds’ _______ lobes are enlarged

developed

In mammals the olfactory is very ________

_______ can generate fresh supplies of brain cells

Adult canaries and zebra zinches

Traits of the peripherial nervous system

Motor and sensory neurons are bundled, two subdivisions (somatic and autonomic)

Autonomic nervous system

Made up of Parasympathetic and sympathetic systems (maintain balance of homeostasis)

Parasympathetic system

lowers heart rate and respiritory rates

sympathetic system

increases heart rate and respiratory rate

Somatic nervous system

innervates skeletal muscles for movement impulses

Reflex arc

neurological feedback loops, only 2 or 3 neurons, bypasses brain

70-80% water

vertebrate bodies contain __________.

salt ions

Many ________ important for body function are dissolved in water.

Water balance

keeping from drying out or getting flooded

Salt balance

keeping from getting to salty or not salty enough

Osmosis

movement of water along solute concentrations

Kidneys

Key osmoregulator; main organ for excretion of nitrogenous wastes (filtration, reabsorbtion, secretion)

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney; contains glomerulus (filter), Bowmans capsule (collects ultrafiltrate), proximal tubule (site of reabsorbtion), Loop of Henle (water reabsorbtion and release of excess ions), distal tubule (site of waste secretion), collecting ducts (collects urine and directs it to urinary system, controls the concentration)

glomerulus

filters the blood, leaky capillaries produce ultrafiltrate

Bowmans capsule

site of collection for ultrafiltrate

proximal tubule

site of reabsorbtion for nutrients and ions

Loop of Henle

Descending limb: main site of water resorbtion, ascending limb: active removal of exvess ions

Distal tubule

site of waste secretion (nitrogenous wastes, urine volume reduction)

Collecting ducts

collects urine, controls concentration, sends to urinary system

Discharged through urethra

where does the urine exit the body in mammals

Birds have _____ urinary bladders?

zero (adaptation for flight)

Solutions of marine fish to maintain osmotic balance

1) Be as salty as the environment (hagfish) 2) Have as high osmotic pressure as the environment (cartilagenous fish using urea) 3) Have mechanisms to counteract water loss and salt gain (bony fish using chloride cells to pump out salt)

Solutions of freshwater fish and amphibians to maintain osmotic balance

do not drink water, kidney produces large amounts of dilute urine, salt is actively pumped through skin by chloride cells (trying to maintain levels of salt)

Stenohaline (narrow salt)

cannot tolerate a large range of salinity and live in constant environments (marine or freshwater)

Euryhaline (wide salt)

Can tolerate a large range of salinity and can move between marine and freshwater environments

Diadromous

migrate between fresh and salt water

catadromous

life mostly in freshwater than migrate to spawn in saltwater (Atlantic eel)

anadromous

most adult life in saltwater then migrate to spawn in freshwater (salmon)

Osmostic regulation of terrestrial vertebrates

1) produce concentrated urine 2) produce very dry feces 3) decrease evaporative water loss through lungs and skin

10-20% of their body mass

Mammals cannot tolerate losses of water over __________.