Year 12 Physical Education

What are chronic adaptations?

They are long term effects of training as a result of regular long term training, they occur as a result of bodies changing to better meet training demands.

What do aerobic chronic adaptions do?

They increase the athletes ability to produce ATP aerobically

What are the types of aerobic chronic adaptations?

Respiratory, cardiovascular, muscular

What are respiratory adaptations (aerobic)?

we are talking about changes to an athletes lungs, with the goal of increased oxygen uptake

what are the respiratory adaptations (aerobic)?

• increased tidal volume

• increased pulmonary diffusion

• increased maximal ventilation

• decreased resting and submaximal respiratory rates

What is increased tidal volume?

Tidal volume is the amount of air breathed in and out with each breath

When there is improved efficiency of the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) they contract more forcefully, expanding the thoracic cavity and lung volume so you can take more air in

(it will plateau as the chest cavity cannot expand any further)

What is increased pulmonary diffusion?

the process of gas exchange between the alveoli, where oxygen moves from the lungs into the blood, and carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the lungs to be exhaled

The size and number of the alveoli found within the lungs increases significantly. This increases the surface area over which O2 and CO2 can be exchanged - a process called gaseous exchange.

This means more O2 will diffuse into the surrounding capillaries to be taken to the heart and pumped to working muscles

What is decreased resting and submaximal respiratory rates?

the number of breaths a person takes per minute

Because the lungs have increased their efficiency, they are able to take in larger amounts of O2 at less energy.

There is a decrease in resting and submaximal respiratory rates. So the body can supply sufficient O2 with fewer breaths per minute up to maximal workloads

What is increased maximal ventilation?

Ventilation is the amount of air inhaled and exhaled over 1 minute

Ventilation = tidal volume x respiratory rate

(because tidal volume plateaus respiratory rate is the only thing leading to increased variation)

larger amounts of air being inhaled and exhaled per min (at max levels) results in greater amounts of O2 being made available for diffusion and subsequent transport to working muscles

How do respiratory adaptations improve performance?

more oxygen being taken in (and delivered to working muscles) increases the ability to produce ATP aerobically. This allows the athlete to work aerobically at higher intensities without fatigue.

What are cardiovascular adaptations (aerobic)?

we are talking about changes occuring in an athletes heart, blood, blood vessels

what are the cardiovascular adaptations?

• increased stroke volume

• decreased resting and submaximal heart rates

• increased cardiac output at maximum

• increased heart capillarisation

• increased blood volume

• increased muscle capillarisation

• redistribution of blood

• decreased blood pressure

what is increased stroke volume (increased left ventricle size and volume)?

Aerobic training results in cardia hypertrophy ( an increase in the size and volume of the left ventricle)

This increase in stroke volume and cardiac output allows a greater amount of blood to be ejected from the heart.

This allows more oxygen to be transported to working muscles. Higher stroke volume contributes to endurance athletes being able to perform aerobically for longer and at higher intensities with fewer fatiguing factors.

What is decreased resting and submaximal heart rates?

With an increased stroke volume the heart doesn’t need to pump as frequently (heart rate) to supply muscles with the amounts of oxygen needed to meet the demands of the activity.

Training also results in a slower increase in heart rate during exercise and a lower steady state which is reached sooner

A trained athlete will also return back to resting levels faster. This is due to the greater efficiency of the cardiovascular system in producing energy aerobically.

What is increased cardiac outputs (maximum)?

Cardiac output remains unchanged at rest and submaximal exercise, it does increase during maximal workloads.

The increase in cardiac output is mainly due to stroke volume because maximum heart rate remains the same

What is increased heart capillarisation?

Aerobic training leads to increased cross sectional area of the coronary arteries and associated capillaries that supply the heart.

Increased arterial size and capillary numbers results in more blood and O2 reaching the hearts, while allows the heart to beat more strongly and efficiently during exercise and rest.

What is increased blood volume? (adaptation)

The greatest changes occur to plasma levels and then red blood cell concentration.

Plasma reduces the viscosity to blood, allowing it to flow at a faster rate. Therefore O2 is transported to working muscles at a faster rate, with less resistance throughout the circulatory system.

This also helps remove waste products and transport fuels.

RBC increase in number and the haemoglobin content and O2 carrying capacity of the blood also rises. This allows for a greater amount of O2 to be delivered to the muscles.

What is increased muscle capillarisation?

capillaries supplying muscles - in particular slow twitch fibres - increase in both size and number (density).

A high capillary density means greater blood flow to allow a greater supply of O2 (through diffusion) to the muscle and increased removal of by-products.

The more quickly waste can be removed, the faster the repair and recovery processes and occur and the short time required between training sessions.

When capillarisation is increased, muscles are able to work at higher intensities aerobically for longer periods without accumulation of fatiguing by-products.

What is redistribution of blood flow / increased blood flow away from organs? (adaptation)

During exercise the cardiovascular system redistributes the blood so that more goes to the working muscles (less to other organs).

More blood goes to the working muscles through vasodilation (blood vessel dilates), simultaneously less blood goes to other organs through vasoconstriction (blood vessel constricts).

More blood to muscles means more O2 and fuels and more wast removed.

What is decreased blood pressure?

Improved blood vessel elasticity and reduced peripheral resistance contribute to more blood flow, which lowers blood pressure.

This helps to reduce resistance to blood flow and reduced strain on the heart.

How do cardiovascular adaptions improve performance?

These work towards increasing the delivery or supply of O2 and fuels to working muscles, while also improving the removal of wastes and metabolic by-products that occur as result of increased muscle contractions.

These allow the athlete to work aerobically at higher intensities for longer. There is less reliance on the anaerobic glycolysis system so less fatigue casing by-products being produced.

What are muscular adaptations (aerobic)?

Aerobic training enhances the body’s ability to attract more oxygen into the muscle cells and use it to resynthesise ATP for muscular contractions

What are the muscular adaptations?

• increased mitochondrial density/size and number

• increased myoglobin

• increase arteriovenous difference

• increased oxidative enzymes

• increased glycogen stores

• increased fat oxidation

• adaptation of muscle fibres

what is increased mitochondrial density/size and number?

more mitochondria means greater use of O2 and the oxidation of fuels to produce ATP.

There is also an increase in mitochondrial enzymes, which are responsible for produced ATP at a faster rate.

Improved O2 uptake and use by mitochondria increases free fatty acid oxidation and limits lactate production at a given work load.

What is increased myoglobin?

myoglobin is vital in transporting O2 across cell membranes to the mitochondria.

An increase in the number of myoglobin stores increases the amount of O2 delivered ti the mitochondria for energy production.

What is increased arteriovenous O2 difference?

a-vo2 diff increases both sub maximally (where energy is produced aerobically) and at maximal intensities (when aerobic system is main contributor)

An increased a-vo2 diff indicates a greater uptake of O2 by the muscles.

Multiple factors contribute to increases in a-vo2 diff:

• more myoglobin

• more mitochondria

• the ability of oxidative enzymes to produce more aerobic ATP

• increased distribution of blood flow to working muscles

What is increased oxidative enzymes?

in progress….

What are increased glycogen stores?

Aerobic training increases both muscle and liver glycogen stores, especially in slow twitch fibres.

Because carbs are the preferred exercise fuels due to their more rapid breakdown and lower O2 costs than fats.

So any increases in their availability contributes greatly to improve endurance performances

What is increased fat oxidation?

in progress…

What is adaptation of muscle fibre type?

fast twitch IIa fibres can take on characteristics of slow twitch fibres as a result of endurance training (can take years to manifest).

The transformed fibres show a slight increase in diameter, mitochondria and capillaries but don’t change fibre type.

This means they perform oxidative metabolism as effectively as Type I slow twitch fibres and would allow for a greater ability to generate ATP aerobically with fewer fatiguing factors

How do muscular adaptation improve performance?

In most cases…

The aerobic adaptations allow muscle to take in and utilise more O2 / fuels to allow the athlete to work mainly aerobically at higher intensities for longer.

There is less reliance on the anaerobic glycolysis system so less fatiguing by-products being produced.

What is VO2 max?

The maximum amount of O2 that can be taken up by the respiratory system and utilised by the muscles to produce ATP.

What is absolute and relative VO2 max?

absolute: amount of O2 taken in per min, measure in litres per min. Does take into account body weight.

relative: when weight is taken into account. is expressed as how much O2 is taken in per kilogram of body weight per min, and is measured in millilitres per kilogram per minute

what is lactate inflection point?

Lip is the last exercise intensity where lactate entry into the blood and the removal of lactate are balanced.

Maximum workload where lactate doesn’t accumulate.

** LIP is an indicator of aerobic performance and is the maximum intensity that can be sustained, so a higher LIP means greater aerobic power

What is the advantage of having a higher LIP?

The aerobic system can produce energy at a faster rate, so there is less reliance on the anaerobic glycolysis system until higher intensities are reached, thus metabolic by-product accumulation is delayed.

The athlete is able to work at higher intensities for longer periods without feeling fatigued due to metabolic by-product accumulation.

What are causes for a higher LIP?

Increases in LIP have been found to be related to an increase in lactate clearance from muscles than a decrease in lactate production.

What are the adaptations responsible for increased lactate clearance?

• greater mitochondrial density, with an increased ability to produce aerobic ATP and to oxidise lactate back to pyruvate

• Increase transport of lactate from muscle cells to bloodstream

• greater conversion of lactate back to glucose to produce more ATP

What do muscular adaptations (anaerobic) do?

They are best developed through short and intermediate interval training, plyometric, circuit and resistance training (strength and power).

The goal is to increase anaerobic capacity, muscular strength, speed and power?

what are the the muscular adaptations (anaerobic)?

• muscle hypertrophy

• increased anaerobic enzymes (ATPase and Kinase)

• increased glycolytic capacity and levels

• increased fuel stores

what is muscular hypertrophy?

Anaerobic training targets fast twitch IIb fibres, but also sees IIa fibres increase in cross-sectional area of their myofibrils as well as increased number of actin and myosin filaments.

This increase in size leads to increased contraction speed and force production (which favours strength and power athletes)

In addition to having larger myofibrils is that they can store greater amounts of anaerobic fuels (ATP, CP, glycogen)

what is increased anaerobic enzymes (ATPase and Kinase)

ATPase initiates breakdown of ATP to form ADP, releasing energy for muscular contractions.

Creatine Kinase initiates the breakdown of CP.

Both of these increase and provide energy to resynthesise ATP at a faster rate.

Rapid production of energy via the breakdown of those two chemical fuels is essential for athletes to produce explosive and powerful muscle contractions

what is increased glycolytic capacity (increased stores or glycogen and levels of glycolytic enzymes)?

increased muscular stores of glycogen and increased levels of glycolytic enzymes enhance the capacity of the anaerobic glycolysis system to produce energy, making it faster

what is increased fuel stores?

muscles have larger myofibrils in which fuels can be stored (creatine phosphate, ATP and glycogen)

These increased stores increase the capacity of the anaerobic systems allowing for faster resynthesis of ATP for high intensity activities.

how do muscular adaptations (anaerobic) improve performance?

“increased CP and glycogen stores along with the actions of the anaerobic enzymes, increase the rate and duration of anaerobic energy systems, especially in those events relying on the anaerobic glycolysis system. The rate of ATP resynthesis is increased. This means athletes can maintain high intensity activity for longer.”

“Muscular hypertrophy leads to increased contraction speed and force production, which favours strength and power athletes. “

What are neuromuscular adaptations (anaerobic)?

The changes that occur in the nervous and muscular systems in response to exercise, particularly resistance training, plyometrics and short-interval training, leading to enhanced force production and performance

What are the neuromuscular adaptations (anaerobic)?

• increased motor unit recruitment and synchronisation

• increased motor unit firing frequency

• decreased neural inhibition

what is increased motor unit recruitment?

the more motor units within a muscle that can be recruited the greater the force that can be generated

maximal force requires as many motors units as possible to be involved in the contraction

the ability to recruit motor units at the same time and to stimulate large motor units earlier creates a more powerful muscular contraction with greater force

what is increased motor unit firing frequency?

resistance and plyometric training have been found to increase the firing rate of the neural impulses to individual motor units that make up the muscle

it influences the force and duration of the muscle contraction and can speed up the time it takes to contract maximally

what is decreased neural inhibition?

resistance training leads to a decrease in the inhibitory signals sent.

this allows muscle to generate greater forces but still with low risk of injury occurring

how do neuromuscular adaptations improve performance?

being able to produce more forceful / powerful muscular contractions

what is lactate tolerance?

the body's improved ability to cope with and tolerate high levels of lactic acid

how to improve lactate tolerance?

lactate tolerance training such as intermediate training focuses on the anaerobic glycolysis system and places high stress within fast twitch muscle fibres resulting in high amounts of lactic acid, lactate and H+ accumulation

when the anaerobic glycolysis system is activated and training over time, the number and function of ‘muscle buffers’ increases

muscle buffering ‘mops up’ the accumulating H+ ions and helps stabilise the pH of the muscles

so the athlete can maintain a high intensities as they are able to tolerate the lactate

what does lactate tolerance training do?

• improves neuromuscular function

• allows athlete to maintain a higher work rate for longer

• transports lactate out of the cell more rapidly and efficiently

• regulates H+ more effectively

• allows muscle pain to be better tolerated

• improved energy production via anaerobic glycolysis

• allows more frequent high intensity efforts with less fatigue

• promotes a quicker recovery from successive bursts of speed/power

what is the aim of improving LIP?

to delay the accumulation of H+ ions and being able to work at higher intensities aerobically for longer

how to improve LIP?

LIP is imporved by working aerobically

How long should a warm up last?

10-30 mins

How long should a cool-down last?

5-15 mins

What is continuous training?

It involves performing an activity at a steady intensity without rest for an extended period.

It trains the aerobic system. It enhances muscular endurance and raises LIP.

Frequency 3-5 times a week.

Intensity 70%-85% max hr

Time, at least for 20 mins

What is Fartlek training

It is a form of continuous training that includes planned/spontaneous changes in speed/intensity.

It trains the aerobic system. It improves lactate tolerance.

Frequency 3-5 times a week.

Intensity 70% for lower bursts, 85% max hr in high intensity bursts.

Time, for at least 20 mins.

What is HIIT training?

Involves short bursts of very high-intensity exercise, followed by recovery periods.

It trains the aerobic system. Improve endurance and training adherence due to variety and time efficiency.

Frequency: 3 days a week.

Intensity 90%-100% max hr.

Sets/Reps: 4-12 reps 30s - 4 mins work, 30s - 4 mins rest (1:1 or 12:1)

Time/Rest: 1:1 or 2:1, session can be less than 20 mins, active recovery 60% max hr

What is long interval training?

Involves work intervals longer than 80secs (1-5mins) at a moderate intensity, followed by shorter rest periods.

It trains aerobic system, muscular endurance, lactate tolerance.

Frequency 3 days a week.

Intensity 80%-85% max hr (at or above predicted LIP)

Sets/Reps: 2 sets, 2-4 reps of 60s - 5 min

Time/Rest: 1:1-4:1, 60% max hr active recovery

What is intermediate interval training?

Involves high intensity efforts lasting 10-60s, followed by short periods of rest.

It trains the anaerobic system, muscular and speed endurance.

Frequency 3 days a week.

Intensity 85%-90% max hr, 8-9 RPE, above LIP

Sets/Reps: 2 sets, 6-10 reps, of 10-60s runs.

Time/Rest: 1:2 - 1:3 passive recovery

What is short interval training?

Involves explosive, all out efforts lasting only a few second, followed by long recovery periods. Suitable for team sports, stop/start play.

It trains ATP-CP system, speed, agility, muscular power, recovery of ATP-CP system

Frequency 3 days a week.

Intensity maximal, >95%-100%, 9-10 RPE

Sets/Reps: 3 sets, 6-15 reps, of 3-10s sprints

Time/Res: 1:6-1:9or greater, passive recovery

What is resistance training for muscular endurance?

Ability to repeatedly exert submaximal force. Makes muscles more fatigue resistant

It trains aerobic system, builds muscular endurance

Frequency 3 days a week.

Intensity, light, 40%-60% 1RM, moderate tempo

Sets/Reps: 3-6 sets, 15-25 reps

Time/Rest: 1 min between sets

What is resistance training for muscular strength?

Characterised by heavy loads with low repetitions. Need sufficient recovery time to execute correctly.

It trains anaerobic system, and muscular strength

Frequency 3 times a week

Intensity, very heavy, 80%-100% 1RM, slow tempo

Sets/Reps, 3-6 sets, 1-6 reps

Time/Rest: 2-3 mins between sets

What is resistance training for muscular power?

Highest power output during a movement, improves explosiveness in muscle contractions. Concentric/eccentric exercises, plyometrics, isokinetic movements.

It trains anaerobic systems, enhances muscular power.

Frequency 3 times a week.

Intensity medium, 30%-70% 1RM, fast tempo.

Sets/Reps: 3-6 sets, 3-10 reps

Time/Rest: 2-3 mins between sets

What is plyometric training?

Involves quick powerful movements that combine rapid muscle lengthening (eccentric contraction) followed immediately by explosive shortening (concentric contraction).

It trains the ATP-CP system, muscular power, explosiveness neuromuscular coordination, force production.

Frequency 1-2 days a week, minimum 48 hrs recovery

Intensity 100% effort, explosive, 10 RPE

Sets/Reps: 3-4 different drills, 2-6 sets, 6-10(max) reps, (stop if fatigued or technique fails)

Time/Rest: 3 mins between sets

What is flexibility training?

Improves range of motion at a joint/group of joints by stretching muscle, tendons and ligaments. It can be performed before or after other training.

It improves ROM, agility, neuromuscular coordinations

Frequency, unlimited

Intensity to end or ROM, depends on method used, approx 3-4 RPE

What is fitness?

The capacity to perform daily activities without undue fatigue. And the ability of the body systems to work effectively so that you can perform work and leisure activities efficiently.

What is aerobic power?

The rate of energy production from the aerobic system. Aerobic power depends on the capacity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (blood volume, lung volume, alveoli surface area, blood flow to working muscles, cardiac output)

What factors affect aerobic power?

muscle fibre type, age and sex (characteristics of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems)

How does age affect aerobic power?

Aerobic power (VO2 max) will peak at early to mid 20s and then decline with age. This is due to a decrease in how effectively the body utilises oxygen. A decrease in max heart rate reduces cardiac output and oxygen delivery to the muscles, resulting in a lower VO2 max.

How does sex affect aerobic power?

males have higher haemoglobin concentration and lean body mass. Whereas women have smaller heart size, lower blood volume resulting in lower stoke volume and cardiac output. Therefore males will generally have higher aerobic power.

How does muscle fibre type affect aerobic power?

type 1 slow twitch fibres generate power through aerobic energy systems due to their high mitochondrial density and high capillary and myoglobin density. The greater percentage of type 1 fibres the greater the aerobic power (VO2) and endurance

What is muscular endurance?

the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time, or to hold an isometric muscle contraction for an extended period of time.

What factors affect muscular endurance?

muscle fibre type, fatigue, age, sex

how does muscle fibre type affect muscular endurance?

more type 1 slow twitch muscle fibres means greater endurance capacity of the muscle as they are aerobically powered allowing sustained contractions.

How does fatigue affect muscular endurance?

Athletes with a greater percentage of slow twitch fibres are likely to have a higher lactate inflection point and are able to work at higher intensities aerobically, delaying the fatigue associated with accumulation of metabolic by-products.

How does age affect muscular endurance?

muscular endurance peaks between 18and 24 and then depending on activity levels will decrease with age

what is balance?

the ability to control equilibrium while stationary or moving

what factors affect balance?

it is affected by a change in location, the environment that supports the body and the position of one of more body parts, age and sex

what is co-ordination?

The ability to execute motor skills with efficiency, control and accuracy.

What factors affect co-ordination?

stage of learning, muscle strength and endurance, sex

how does the stage of learning affect co-ordination?

co-ordination improves when a new skill is practiced. As learners move from cognitive stage to autonomous stage there will be an increase in co-ordination as they master skills.

How does muscular strength and endurance affect co-ordination?

Increased strength and endurance can make skills easier to perform with greater coordination. Stronger muscles provide better balance and control, allowing for more precise movements.

How does muscle strength affect balance?

Stronger muscles provide the necessary stability and control to counteract shifts in center of gravity and maintain an upright posture, reducing the risk of falls and improving overall mobility

What is flexibility?

The ability to move the muscles and joints through a full range of motion. It reflects the ability of the muscles and connective tissue to stretch.

What factors affect flexibility?

Joint type and structure, body and muscle temperature, soft tissue structures, age, sex

How does joint type and structure affect flexibility?

Different joints allow for different movements, and the flexibility of the joint is specific to the body part moving through the full range of motion of that movement.

How does soft-tissue structure affect flexibility?

Soft tissues (muscle, tendons, ligaments and skin) stabilise joints but also limit movement. Muscles are elastic and return to their original length after stretching. Stretching improves flexibility by increasing the range of motion (soft tissues become stretchier and limit movement less)

How does body and muscle temperature affect flexibility?

increasing muscle temp improves both the ability of the muscle to stretch and the flexibility of the joint (muscle becomes stretchier with heat and limit movement less)

How does age and sex affect flexibility?

AGE: flexibility decreases significantly for both males and females with age, after 20-39 years.

SEX: Hormonal differences mean that women are more flexible

What are the aerobic fitness components?

Aerobic POWER, muscular endurance, balance, co-ordination, flexibility.

what are the anaerobic components?

anaerobic CAPACITY, agility, muscular strength, muscular power, speed

What is anaerobic capactity?

The maximum amount of energy obtainable from the anaerobic systems. It refers to the total amount of work that can be done by the anaerobic systems.

What factors affect anaerobic capacity?

muscle fibre type, lactate inflection, age, sex

How does muscle fibre type affect anaerobic capacity?

A greater percentage of fast twitch fibres (type 2) will increase anaerobic capacity as they have less mitochondrial and capillary density and can’t deliver O2 as efficiently and rely mainly on anaerobic systems.

how does lactate inflection affect anaerobic capacity?

The greater a persons lactate tolerance, the greater their anaerobic capacity because they can keep producing energy anaerobically for longer

How does age and sex affect anaerobic capacity?

AGE: Anaerobic capacity decreases with age after 30 due to decreased muscle mass and type 2 muscle fibres atrophy

SEX: Anaerobic capacity is 20% higher in males due to greater muscle mass (higher CP stores)

What is agility?

The ability to change body positions quickly and accurately in response to a stimulus, while moving at speed.