ba 350 exam 2 (cobb sdsu)

MOTIVATION

…

motivation

the processes that account for an individual’s INTENSITY, DIRECTION, and PERSISTANCE of effort toward attaining a goal

**the level of motivation varies between individuals and within individuals at different times (in some scenarios we are more motivated and will overcome obstacles… in other situations, we have less motivation and will give up easier)

**everyone has different motivators in life, so it becomes a big managerial problem to find what motivates employees in the workplace

3 components of motivation

1. direction= WHAT GOAL (effort directed towards and consistent with the organization’s goals)

2. intensity= HOW HARD a person tries

3. persistence= HOW LONG a person can maintain effort

theories of motivation

early theories:

-maslows hierarchy of needs

-two factor theory

-theory of needs

contemporary theories:

-content

-context

-process

maslow’s hierarchy of needs (early theory 1)

-5 levels of needs that are the foundation of our motivations

-as we satisfy our lower level needs, we move up the hierarchy (cannot progress to a higher level without achieving a lower one)

-as each need becomes well satisfied, the next one becomes dominant

physiological needs

basic necessities (hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs)

safety needs

security and protection from physical and emotional harm

social belongingness / love needs

affection, love, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

esteem needs

internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement

external factors such as status, recognition, and attention

self actualization needs

drive to become what we can become; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self fulfillment

(very few people reach this stage in life)

two factor theory (early theory 2)

= relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction (the motivation hygiene theory)

• intrinsic: advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement → job satisfaction (employees feel good about their work)

• extrinsic: supervision, pay, company policies, and work conditions → dissatisfaction

satisfaction vs dissatisfaction

• factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate/distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction

NOT OPPOSITE ENDS!!!

• removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying; managers would be placating (make less angry) rather than motivating employees

• the opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction” … opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction”

hygiene factors

factors such as quality of supervision, pay, company policy, physical work conditions, relationships with others, and job security

when these factors are adequate in a job, people will not be dissatisfied; neither satisfied (to motivate people, we need to instead focus on factors associated with the work itself or with the outcomes derived from it… aka internal factors)

theory of needs (early theory 3)

= theory by McClelland that states there are 3 primary needs that help explain motivation in human beings (achievement, power, affiliation)

*individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas (need levels will drive their behaviors depending on how high/low you are in a category)

need for achievement

the need to excel or achieve to a set of standards (strive to succeed)

-high achievers perform best when an individual perceives their probability of success as 0.5 or a 50/50 chance (thus do not like gambling with high odds and low odds)

-tend to exhibit more positive moods, be more interested in the task at hand, and perform very well in high stake conditions on the job

-these individuals need stretch/challenging goals

need for power

the need to make OTHERS behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise

-desire to make an impact, be influential, and control other people (leans into narcissism)

need for affiliation

the need to establish friendly and close interpersonal relationships

content (contemporary theory 1)

concerned with the fundamental motives and INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES in MOTIVES states common to all people

-includes STD, cognitive evaluation, self concordance, and basic psychological needs

self determination theory (SDT) - CONTENT

= employees well being and performance are influenced by the nature of their motivation for certain job activities

• components: a sense of choice over what they do, how motivating the task is in and of itself, how rewards influence motivation, and how work satisfied psychological needs

= meta theory at work that is concerned with autonomy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of psychological work needs

• motivation can be either autonomous or controlled

autonomous vs controlled

autonomous = freely chosen

controlled = directed or pressured (from others)

**people prefer to have control over their actions/outcomes (and we want the autonomy/freedom to choose what we want to or what we don’t want to do)

cognitive evaluation theory - CONTENT

= a sub theory of SDT in which extrinsic rewards (ex. pay) for behavior tend to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling or reduce their sense of competence

(intrinsic motivation contributes to QUALITY of work; extrinsic QUANTITY of work)

• when people are paid for work, it feels less like something they WANT to do and more like something they MUST do (individuals do not like this because we have less control and autonomy)

self concordance theory - CONTENT

= the degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their INTERESTS and CORE VALUES

• if work aligns with interests/value… higher job satisfaction, feel they fit better into their organizations better, and may perform better

• if pursue goals bc of INTRINSIC interest, happier… if for EXTRINSIC interest, higher levels of strain

basic psychological needs - CONTENT

need for AUTONOMY= the need to feel in control and autonomous at work

(most important for attitudinal and affective outcomes)

need for COMPETENCE= the need to feel like we are good at what we do or proud of it

(most important for predicting performance)

***autonomy and freedom to choose what we do results in higher motivation for the work and organizational commitment (if we do something we choose to do then we feel more satisfaction; if org allows it, we feel more committed to them)

context (contemporary theory 2)

involves sources of motivation that stem from the contexts people find themselves in (EXTERNAL SOURCES)… universal “truths” of motivation that exist across people

-includes reinforcement, conditioning, and SLT

reinforcement theory - CONTEXT

= argues that behavior is a function of its consequences (tactically control what people do with giving a positive/negative reward)

-stimulus creates response

-ignores inner state

behaviorist → it portrays behavior as caused by the context or environment

(ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when the individual act)

ex. if im a manager or leader, i can control someone by rewarding or punishing them…. if i want you to complete a project and you don’t then no promotion/visibility ; if you do complete it then yes promotion/visibility)

operant conditioning

=suggests that people LEARN to behave in a certain way to either get something they want or avoid something they do not want

-behavior is environmentally caused

-behavior can me modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences

-positively reinforced behavior tends to be repeated

… if you repeat this good behavior then you get a “cookie” which means that person will keep doing it more and more (aka positive reinforced behavior)

****how we behave is SUBCONSCIOUS!!!!

behaviorism

= a theory stating that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner (rejects feelings, thoughts, and other states of mind as causes of behavior)

-people engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so

-rewards are more effective if they immediately follow the desired response

-behavior that is not rewarded or punished is less likely to be repeated

ex. a commissioned salesperson wanting to earn a sizable income finds doing so is contingent on generating high sales, so the salesperson sells as much as possible

social learning theory - CONTEXT

= we can learn through both observation and direct experience

(assumes behavior is a function of consequences

-we learn from and “model” their behavior from other people

-we pay attention to what others are doing and reproduce the behaviors from memory

-we are more likely to repeat behaviors in the future if they are also reinforced by the model

ex. positive feedback from a coach or trainer ; in the workplace, we observe how people behave and “copy” those behaviors that get rewarded or promoted

process (contemporary theory 3)

involves the direct motivation theories that focus on the process of choosing and striving toward goals

-includes expectancy, goal setting, and self efficacy

expectancy theory - PROCESS

= a theory that suggests that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

(basically… employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that it will lead to a good performance appraisal, that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as salary increases and/or intrinsic rewards, and that these rewards will satisfy their personal goals)

• helps explain why a lot of workers are not motivated on their jobs and do only the bare minimum to get by; also explains employees’ efforts toward goal accomplishment

three relationships:

1. expectancy: the effort-performance relationship

2. instrumentality: the performance reward relationship

3. valence: the rewards-personal goals relationship

→ as an individual, i am going to put in as much effort (individual effort) as i believe will result in performance (individual performance); maybe i will get a promotion, bonus, raise, recognition, etc. (org rewards)… i only do it to the extent that it meets my personal goals which is something bigger that i care about (personal goals)… if the outlet for your rewards leaves (a manager for ex), you will stop caring about your work

expectancy: the effort-performance relationship

the degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance

instrumentality: the performance reward relationship

the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

valence: the rewards-personal goals relationship

the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual

bottom lines of goal-setting theory

-all three links (relationships) bw the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. thus,

-individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and

-if they perform, they will be rewarded and

-when they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about

goal setting theory - PROCESS

= a theory that intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation and lead to higher performance

goals do four things

1. direct attention

2. mobilize effort (helps us understand where we should be putting our time and effort)

3. encourage persistence

4. facilitate the development of strategy (develop plan of action)

self-set vs manager-set goals

self set= when we set our own goals it creates more enthusiasm

***these goals are the best to set!! bc we feel a autonomy and in control

manager set= when other people set goals for us it creates more anxiety, threat, and uncertainty

what 3 factors yield high goal performance?

-specificity (specific goals explicitly direct attention towards what needs to be accomplished compared to vague/general ones)

-difficulty + acceptance (once a difficult task has been accepted, we expect that individual to exert a high level of effort to try to achieve it)

-feedback (the more feedback we get, the better)

factors that help or hurt goal setting / what drive performance

- goal commitment

- task characteristics

- feedback

- goal orientation

(and conflict)

goal commitment

= they individual (1) believes they can achieve the goal and (2) wants to achieve it

task characteristics

• simple, well learned (goals seem to lead to stronger performance when tasks are simple rather than complex)

• group vs individual (goal setting is more effective when the goals are independent)

feedback

people do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing towards their goals because it helps identify discrepancies bw what they have done and what they should do next

• self generated feedback > externally generated feedback

goal orientation

= people systematically differ in the extent they are motivated to prove themselves through good performance (PERFORMANCE PRONE) and avoiding bad performance (PERFORMANCE AVOID) and the extent to which they are motivated to master the task (MASTERY)

-conflicting goal orientations can wreak havoc in teams working toward interdependent goals …. AVOID leads to team members hiding and manipulating info

goal conflict

= when goals compete with one another

ex. when we have two separate time sensitive tasks to complete but only have time for one

-negatively effects employee stress and anxiety

-can negatively effect your performance on tasks that are completely unrelated

management by objectives (MBO)

= a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress

**goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable

4 ingredients:

-goal specificity

-participation in decision making

-explicit time period

-performance feedback

cascading of objectives model

→ the organization’s overall objectives are translated into specific cascading objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, individual)

→ works from bottom up as well as top down

self efficacy theory - PROCESS

= an individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task

(the higher it is, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed… the lower, the more likely you are to give up)

4 ways to increase self efficacy

1. enactive mastery

2. vicarious modeling

3. verbal persuasion

4. arousal

enactive mastery

= give employees relevant experiences with the task (learning)

ex. training programs (help people practice and build their skills)

vicarious modeling

= employees watch someone else do the task

verbal persuasion

= reassuring employees and letting them know that they have “what it takes” to do the task

**pygmalion effect: believing in something can make it true

arousal

= tell employees to get “psyched up” (excitement/adrenaline)

joint effects of goals and self efficacy on performance

→supportive managers who set difficult goals for their employees may lead them to have a higher level of self-efficacy and set higher goals for themselves

organizational justice

= overall perception of what is fair in the workplace (how employees feel authorities and decision makers at work treat them… how people adhere to or violate rules/principles in the workplace)

ex. i think this is a fair place to work

justices:

-distributive

-procedural

-interactional (informational and interpersonal)

distributive justice

= perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (such as pay, promotions, raises, and recognition)

*is it fair the way things were given out?

ex. i got the pay raise i deserved

procedural justice

= the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

*was the PROCESS fair?

ex. i had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why i received the raise i did

employees think it is more fair when…

-they have a say in decision making

-decision makers follow rules

-decisions are made in a consistent manner

-avoid bias (not favoring one group over another)

-using accurate info

-remaining open to appeals

interactional justice

= sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment… aka the way people are treated

(made up of informational and interpersonal)

ex. when telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary

informational justice

= the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations and decisions

(the more detailed and candid managers are with employees, the more fairly treated the employee feels)

interpersonal justice

= the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect

MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE

…

job design

the way the elements in a job are organized, which can influence employee effort

job characteristic model (JCM)

a model proposing that any job can be described in terms of five core job characteristics:

1. skill variety

2. task identity

3. task significance

4. autonomy

5. feedback

→if jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation, performance, and satisfaction will improve, and that absences and turnover will be reduced

1. skill variety

= the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities using different skills or talents (the more activities the better)

ex.

high scorer → garage owner operator who does electrical repairs, rebuilds engines, does bodywork, and interacts with customers

low scorer → body shop owner who sprays paint 8 hours a day

2. task identity

= the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

ex.

high scorer → cabinetmaker who designs furniture, selects the wood, builds the furniture, and finishes the pieces

low scorer → operating a lathe solely to make table legs (no whole piece of work is complete)

3. task significance

= the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people

ex.

high scorer→ nurse helping patients in a hospital

low scorer→ sweeping floors in a hospital

4. autonomy

= the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out

ex.

high scorer → sales managers who schedule their own work and tailor their sales approach to each customer without supervision

low scorer → account representative is required to follow a standardized sales script with potential customers

5. feedback

= the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of the individual’s performance

ex.

high scorer → testing and inspecting ipads

low scorer → installing components of ipads as they move down an assembly line

job redesign

=redesigning jobs to motivate employees ; leads to reduced turnover and increased job satisfaction ; improves inclusiveness in organizations

-job rotations

-job enrichment

-relational job design

job rotations

= the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another (aka cross training)

→ an alternative when employees suffer from over-routinization of their work

ex. new manager getting rotated through jobs to help them get a picture of the whole org

job enrichment

=adding high level responsibilities to a job to increase intrinsic motivations (and gives purpose, direction, meaning)

→has roots in herzberg’s theories of providing hygiene factors to increase motivation at work

ex. for people who are high in need for achievement, give them a stretch goal or something MORE than what they are used to

relational job design

=constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work

to make jobs more pro socially motivating:

(promote well being of customers, clients, patients, employees, etc.)

-connect employees with beneficiaries of their work (fosters high level of commitment)

-meet beneficiaries first hand (allows employees to see that their actions affect a real person and have tangible consequences)

alternative work arrangements

(another approach to enhancing motivation)

-flextime

-job sharing

-telecommuting

flextime

flexible work hours (“flexible” work arrangements / “flexible work time”)

ex. working longer each day for a shorter number of days, 12-7 instead of 9-5, having every other friday off, etc.

job sharing

= an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional full time job

ex. one employee works from 8 am - noon. ; the other does 1 pm - 5 pm

telecommuting

=working from home or anywhere else the employee chooses that is OUTSIDE of the physical workplace (aka remote work)

→doing work from home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office

employee involvement (and participation)

= a participative process that uses the input of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success

→ if workers are engaged in decisions that increase their autonomy/control over their work lives, they will become more motivates, committed to org, productive, and satisfied with jobs

(meets maslows love/relational/belonging need)

-participative management

-representative participation

participative management

a process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate superiors

representative participation

a system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees (work councils and board of reps)

variable pay programs

= a pay plan that bases a portion or all of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance (aka pay performance)

-piece rate plans

-merit based pay

-bonuses

-profit sharing

-employee stock ownership plans

piece rate plans

a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production complete (no base salary… paid only for what is produced)

merit based pay

a pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings (lets individuals perceive a strong relationship bw their performance and rewards)

→essentially, there is a target/goal you are supposed to meet and if you meet it then you might get rewarded

bonuses

a pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance (come at end of the period)

profit sharing

an organization wide program that distributed compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability

(incentivized by whatever the profit for a given period of time was… this was shared across employees?)

employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)

a company established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock (often at below market prices) as part of their benefits

other forms of motivation…

developing a benefits package & employee recognition programs

developing a benefits package

health care, retirement savings, student loan repayment assistance, paid leave, work life benefits, travel assistance, career development, etc

flexible benefits

= a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package tailored to their own needs

(can accommodate differences in employee needs based on age, marital status, partner’s benefit status, and number and age of dependents)

employee recognition programs

= a plan to encourage specific behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions (spot awards, money, name recognition, private thank you, etc.)

-increases an employee’s intrinsic motivation work

-research suggests that financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run non-financial incentives may work best (aka praise is free!!)

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES - WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

…

workplace diversity

refers to the heterogenous characteristics that make up organization, work groups, and teams

what are the two major forms of workplace diversity?

1. surface level

2. deeper level

1. surface level diversity

differences in easily perceived characteristics that do not necessarily reflect the way people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes

-gender identity / sexual orientation

-age

-race

-ethnicity

-ability (intellectual or physical)

2. deeper level diversity

differences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better

-values

-personality

-work preferences

the cultural iceberg

• visible → customs and behaviors

• less visible → assumptions (space, eye contact, distance)

• not visible → values and unspoken beliefs

cultural identity

= a link with the culture of family ancestry, values, and religion that lasts a lifetime, no matter where the individual may live in the world

-shared behavior or characteristics

-affect management practices

-are hard to change

-can be the foundation of serious conflict

hofstede’s dimensions of culture

“culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from another” - Geert Hofstede

-power distance

-uncertainty avoidance

-long term vs short term orientation

-individualism vs collectivism

-masculinity vs femininity

power distance

extent to which a society accepts an unequal distribution of power in institutions and organizations

high rating → large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated (ex. class or caste system)

low rating → societies that value equality and opportunity

uncertainty avoidance

extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them

high → people have increased anxiety about uncertainty/ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty

low → people are more accepting of ambiguity, are less rule oriented, take more risks, and accept change more readily

long term vs short term orientation

long = future, thrift, persistence (believe that the world is constantly changing)

short = past, honoring traditions, fulfilling social obligations, and upholds its image