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Describe the consequence of mercury release to the environment. What was the most famous catastrophe related to the release of mercury?
- when mercury is released to the atmosphere, it enters the atmospheric soul water distribution cycles where it can remain in the circulation for many years.
- The minsmata bay disaster is the most famous catastrophe related to release of methylmercury in 1956
- Exposure to mercury, especially its organic form methylmercury, can lead to neurological and developmental damage, particularly in fetuses and young children and cardiovascular problems
-caused death, paralysis and deformities
- Widespread death of marine life and long term ecological damage
Discuss the essential elements on which the one health concept relating to the toxoplasma Gondi invasion control is based.
- Toxoplasma is a zoonotic parasite that can potentially infect humans - can be life threatening and cause abortions in pregnant individuals
- therefore diagnosing individuals and restrict spread is crucial
- infection by humans eating meat with cysts
control
- The one health concept on vaccination for toxoplasma gondii is the ideal strategy for control of this infectious protozoan.
- The vaccine DGNP/TE is administered intranasally, and it helps prevent infection, abortion and trans placental transmission in sheep.
- single vaccination- protects at least 2 consecutive reproductive cycles
- The vaccine have had good results. Leading to a positive direction in development of a vaccine for other species.
-vaccination, reporting infected, meat control, studies on prevalence in dogs, humans
List the factors occurring in the primary production stage contributing to the emergence of campylobacter spp. infections. Describe the strict biosecurity measures that can be applied at this stage of production and their significance in the one health concept.
- campylobacter is a common infection all around the world, that has aquired antibiotic resistance
-located in the chicken intestine, while the poultry is the main reservoir. (Industrial poultry)
Risk factors
-contaminated food/ water
-infected animals spreading via faeces
-overcrowding, stress
-human carriers
-poor farm hygiene
biosecurity measures
- knowing the strain of campylobacter is essential
- quarantine new animals
- insect/rodent control, good hygiene - regular disinfection
- reduction of environment exposure
- workers- limit access to only when necessary, wear protective clothing, follow strict hygiene protocols
- water should be tested and treated (UV radiation)
- food- properly stored, good quality and pathogen free
- increase in poultry host resistance to reduce the campylobacter carriage in the gut- vaccination, bacteriocin, bacteriophages, autovaccines, prebiotics
Explain the term multi drug resistance and describe its significance in the one health concept. What are the alert pathogens?
MDR
- the different bacterial stains that have resistant genes against antibiotics eg MRSA, MRSP, ESBL
- against 3 or more antibiotics
- due to the antibiotic use, which kills the bacteria, but some bacteria mutate and develop resistant strains
- One health - global health threat, can transfer between humans and animals, contaminate environment and spread resistance
- In vet med we do not use import anti microbial for human medicine, due to prevention of the use of “last resort” antibiotic that are for humans only.
Alert pathogens
- are microorganisms that have been isolated from infection which often is non-susceptible to the different drugs available on the market.
- These microorganisms produce a resistance mechanism.
- Methicyllin-resistant staphylococci (MRSA, MRSP)
- Extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing G/-/ rods
What is internal biosecurity? List its elements and its significance in relation to the One health concept?
Internal biosecuity
- all the different things done on a farm to keep pathogens from spreading from infected animals to healthy individuals in the same population
- usually from older to younger animals.
- Three main elements; treatment, containment, and elimination,
- in the context of the One Health approach, focuses on preventing the transfer of pathogens within a facility, preventing zoonotic diseases, combating antimicrobial resistance, maintaining economic stability, prioritizing the safety of both the people working there and the animals present.
How does biodiversity and its loss impact to the emergence and spread of zoonoses?
- Zoonotic diseases are caused by infections shared between animals and humans.
- In ecosystems with high biodiversity, there are many different species, some of which are not competent hosts for pathogens. This diversity "dilutes" the chances of a pathogen encountering a suitable host, reducing transmission rates. Diverse ecosystems maintain balanced relation ships preventing any one species becoming a dominant disease reservoir.
- In less diverse ecosystems, a few species that are competent hosts for zoonotic pathogens can become more abundant. With fewer predators and competitors, these reservoir hosts eg rodents can proliferate, increasing the likelihood of disease transmission to humans. Ecosystem dominated by efficient pathogen hosts
Eg Lyme Disease : reduced forest biodiversity increases tick reliance on white-footed mice which are effective reservoirs
Indicate what tools (methods) can be used in the fight against parasitic diseases in the context of one health strategy.
- vaccines/drugs - antiparasitics eg ivermectins.
- early dewormers
- Community education is beneficial
- preventive medicine/measures, correct diagnosis.
- Proper sanitation and hygiene, proper preparation of meat.
- integrated pest management
- anti-parasitic medications
- policy and legislation-enforcing regulations and promoting international cooperation
-contribution of the private sector eg Biotech
What are the main issues resulting from pesticides use and their significance in the one health concept?
ENVIRONMENT
- pesticides are designed to kill or otherwise have toxic effect on the living organism to prevent plant diseases
- contamination of water sources, reduces soil fertility by disrupting microbiota
-significance: preserving ecosystem is crucial for human and animal health
ANIMAL
- pesticides have environmental mobility - evaporation causing respiratory difficulties and loss of consciousness which was reported in children and calves
- The use of pesticides will leave residue on the feed, which can lead to acute or chronic poisoning on wildlife.
- reproductive issues and weakened immune system
- indirect risk to humans
- linked with antibiotic resistance
- significance: ensuring animal health maintains biodiversity, ecosystems and food safety
HUMAN
- headaches, nausea, respiratory distress
- long term - cancer, neurological disorders
- significance: protecting human health reduces health burdens
Why is climate change leading to the emergency and spread of zoonoses?
- Climate change leads to the emergence and spread of zoonoses by altering ecosystems and wildlife habitats, forcing animals to migrate and come into closer contact with humans.
- Changes in temperature and weather patterns can expand the geographic range of vectors like mosquitoes and ticks, increasing the transmission of vector-borne diseases.
- loss in biodiversity - In less diverse ecosystems, a few species that are competent hosts for zoonotic pathogens can become more abundant. With fewer predators and competitors, these reservoir hosts eg rodents can proliferate, increasing the likelihood of disease transmission to humans. Ecosystem dominated by efficient pathogen hosts
- climate-induced stress on wildlife can weaken their immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections, which can then be transmitted to humans.
- floods & droughts displace ecosystems and create conditions that favour the spread of zoonoses
-extended transmission seasons - warmer weather
What is the difference been the quarantine and the acclimization of animals on a farm? What is the significance of quarantine in relation to one health concept.
quarantine
- Isolation of animals to prevent spread of diseases: new animals kept separate from the rest of the herd for a period of time (few weeks)
-monitoring for illness, testing, treatment
In relation to one health concept :
- used for lowering the risk of infection when; selling animals, introducing animals, and getting rid of infections. It is an all in all out concept.
- allows of early detection and treatment of diseases
- Quarantine can lead to economical losses, but it will improve food safety and mimics the risk of exotic pests or disease entering the country.
-Protects human, animal and environmental health
Acclimation
- an all in all out method too
- process of gradually adapting animals to new environmental conditions to minimise stress (few days/weeks)
- requires face and vaccination
-gradual introduction to diet
What are the most important environmental and health problems caused by dioxins, furans, PCBs.
- dioxins, furans and PCBs are all extremely harmful
- polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
- They can lead to chronic or acute toxicity
- They cause health problems such as carcinogenic, teratogenic effects.
- They are toxic to CNS and have metabolic and endocrine disorder with exposure.
- They can lead to a Huge bioaccumulation and biomagnification, while also having a negative effect on the environment due to the fact that they are toxic to flora and animals.
What is the co-selection and its significance in the one health concept? What are the factors favouring the spread of co-selection?
co-selection
- the genes that give protection against different antibiotics, and resistance to heavy metals (silver and copper) is usually found on the same plasmids.
- due to that they are linked with the plasmids, one of the antibiotics is enough to maintain all the antibiotic resistant mechanisms
Factors:
- Hospitals --> wide use of antimicrobials and heavy metal salts in treatment favor mutations of MDR organisms
- in agricultural areas --> use of antibiotics and heavy metal salts, that promote the growth of plants and farm animals.
Co-resistance vs. cross-resistance and examples
Co-resistance
- associated with the transmission of several genetic elements into the same bacterial isolate and with the occurrence of mutations in different genetic loci which affects different
antimicrobials.
Cross-resistance
- produced by mutations or by the acquisition of resistance genes affecting antimicrobials agents from the same class.
Example:
- Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is considered multidrug-resistant due to the accumulation of resistance mechanisms (co-resistance) to beta-lactams, macrolides, aminoglycosides or fluoroquinolones.
- It also exhibits cross-resistance to all fluoroquinolones - associated with the mutations in the topoisomerases genes
categories of resistance
MDR - (Multi-Drug Resistance)
- bacteria are resistant to 3 or more
antimicrobial classes
XDR - (Extensive drug resistance)
– bacteria are susceptible to
antimicrobials only from 1 or 2 classes
PDR - (Pandrug resistance)
– bacteria are resistant to all antimicrobials
in all classes!!!
List the risk factors occurring at the processing stage (cutting plant/meat processing plant) contributing to the emergence of campylobacter spp. infections. Describe the preventative measure that can be applied at this stage of production and their significance in the one health concept
Resultant of flock status (presence of campylobacter) and slaughter house hygiene and practice
Risk factors
-slaughter techniques: scalding, deboning, eviseration, wasking, cooling
Preventative measures
- test if animals have campylobacter
- store disinfected crates separate to dirty crates
- airflow in reverse direction
- multiple scald tanks to reduce contamination- water temp over 55C
- no feed withdrawal
- only wet carcass sent for cooling, rapidly cooled, no condensation so no water accumulation, cold air cooling
- cooling with Nitrogen, rescaling at 82C
What is methaphylacis and its role in the one health concept? How is it implemented in a herd?
*Chat gpt
-the preventative treatment of a group of animals with antimicrobial or anti-parasitic drugs when some of the animals are already showing signs of disease but others are still healthy.
Prevent spread of infectious disease
Implemented by monitoring for signs of disease, detecting threshold (5-10%), diagnosis, injectable antibiotics/medicated feed or water, monitor for effectiveness, side effects, withdrawal times