Overview of the Digestive and Urinary Systems

What are the main purposes of the digestive system?

To break down food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste.

What structures comprise the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract?

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas.

What structures comprise the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract?

Small intestine and large intestine.

What are the layers of the gastrointestinal tract epithelium?

Mucosa, submucosa, muscular layers (circular and longitudinal smooth muscle), and serosa.

What is the function of the oral cavity in digestion?

Food/fluid intake, mechanical breakdown (chewing), and initial digestion (saliva).

What is the primary function of the esophagus?

To transport food to the stomach via peristalsis.

What are the main parts of the stomach?

Fundus, rugae, and pylorus.

What are the functions of the liver?

Converts glucose to glycogen, regulates blood levels, detoxifies alcohol/drugs, and produces bile.

What is the role of bile in digestion?

Bile aids in fat digestion.

What are the divisions of the small intestine?

Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

What is the primary function of the jejunum?

Nutrient absorption.

What features of the small intestine increase nutrient absorption?

Villi and microvilli increase surface area.

What are the divisions of the large intestine?

Cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal.

What is the main function of the large intestine?

To absorb water and electrolytes, and to form/store feces.

What hormone promotes gastric emptying?

Gastrin.

What does secretin stimulate in the digestive system?

Bile and pancreatic secretions.

What triggers the release of bile and enzymes from the pancreas?

Cholecystokinin (CCK).

What is anorexia?

Loss of appetite.

What is bulimia?

Binge eating followed by purging.

What are the types of diarrhea?

Large volume, small volume, steatorrhea (fatty), frank (bloody), occult (hidden blood), and melena (dark, tarry).

What is dysphagia?

Difficulty swallowing due to neurologic, muscular, or obstructive causes.

What is a common cause of gastritis?

Inflamed mucosa from spicy food or alcohol.

What is peptic ulcer disease often related to?

H. pylori infection.

What is pyloric stenosis?

A narrowed pyloric sphincter, common in infants.

What is Pyloric Stenosis?

A narrowed pyloric sphincter, commonly seen in infants.

What is Cholelithiasis?

Gallstone formation.

What is Cholecystitis?

Inflammation of the gallbladder.

What is Cholangitis?

An infection of the bile duct.

What is Choledocholithiasis?

Bile duct obstruction caused by gallstones.

What are some complications associated with gallbladder disorders?

Inflammation, infection (E. coli), biliary colic, jaundice.

What are the types of jaundice?

Prehepatic (RBC destruction), Intrahepatic (liver disease), Posthepatic (bile flow obstruction), Physiologic (newborns).

What is Hepatitis A and its transmission?

A viral infection transmitted via the oral-fecal route with a 2-6 week incubation.

How is Hepatitis B transmitted?

Through blood and body fluids, with a 2-month incubation period.

What is the transmission method for Hepatitis C?

Bloodborne, with an incubation period of 2 weeks to 6 months.

What are the stages of Hepatitis?

Preicteric (fatigue, nausea), Icteric (jaundice), Posticteric (recovery).

What are the causes of Cirrhosis?

Alcohol consumption, chronic hepatitis, and immune disorders.

What are the stages of alcoholic cirrhosis?

Fatty liver → hepatitis → fibrosis → end-stage cirrhosis.

What are the effects of Cirrhosis?

Impaired bile production, clotting issues, portal hypertension.

What are common symptoms of liver cancer?

Anorexia, weight loss, fatigue.

What is the main characteristic of Acute Pancreatitis?

Autodigestion leading to severe pain and shock.

What is Celiac Disease?

A gluten-related malabsorption disorder with a genetic link, often diagnosed in childhood.

What distinguishes Crohn's Disease from Ulcerative Colitis?

Crohn's can affect any part of the GI tract with cobblestone ulcers, while Ulcerative Colitis is limited to the rectum and colon.

What are the symptoms of Appendicitis?

Pain in the lower right quadrant (LRQ), nausea, and potential peritonitis if ruptured.

What is Diverticulitis?

Inflamed diverticula, often seen in the elderly.

What is the cause of Colorectal Cancer?

Adenomatous polyps that progress to malignant neoplasms.

What are the symptoms of Intestinal Obstruction?

Distention, vomiting, and dehydration.

What is Peritonitis?

Inflammation of the peritoneal membranes due to chemical irritation or bacterial invasion.

What are the types of Peritonitis?

Chemical (due to enzymes, urine, chyme, or bile) and Bacterial (from trauma or ruptured appendix).

What is the function of Nephrons in the kidneys?

They serve as the functional units for filtration and reabsorption.

What hormones are involved in kidney function?

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) increases water reabsorption, and Aldosterone enhances sodium and water reabsorption.

What is Incontinence?

Loss of bladder control, which can manifest as enuresis, stress incontinence, or overflow incontinence.

What are common abnormalities found in Urinalysis?

Cloudy urine (protein, blood cells), dark color (hematuria, excess bilirubin), and unusual odor (infection, diet).

What is hematuria and what can cause it?

Hematuria is the presence of blood in urine, caused by infection, inflammation, or tumors.

What does proteinuria indicate and what causes it?

Proteinuria indicates glomerular damage, often due to albumin leakage.

What is bacteriuria and what condition is it associated with?

Bacteriuria refers to bacteria in urine, commonly associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs).

What do casts in urine indicate?

Casts indicate tubule inflammation.

What does low specific gravity in urine suggest?

Low specific gravity suggests renal failure and poor urine concentration.

What do glucose and ketones in urine indicate?

Glucose and ketones in urine indicate uncontrolled diabetes.

What does elevated serum urea indicate?

Elevated serum urea indicates a low glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

What is metabolic acidosis and what causes it in renal failure?

Metabolic acidosis is characterized by low pH/bicarbonate due to tubule failure.

What causes anemia in renal failure?

Anemia in renal failure is caused by low erythropoietin from kidney damage.

What imaging tests are used for kidney function assessment?

Imaging tests include ultrasound, CT, intravenous pyelography, and cystogram.

What is dialysis and when is it used?

Dialysis is an artificial kidney treatment for renal failure, used in acute or end-stage cases.

What is hemodialysis and how does it work?

Hemodialysis filters blood via a machine using dialysate and is done in a hospital or at home.

What are the pros and cons of hemodialysis?

Pros: Effective waste removal. Cons: Time-intensive and requires equipment.

What is peritoneal dialysis and how is it performed?

Peritoneal dialysis involves instilling dialysate into the peritoneal cavity via catheter for waste exchange.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of peritoneal dialysis?

Pros: Flexible and home-based. Cons: Risk of peritonitis; prophylactic antibiotics are used.

What is a urinary tract infection (UTI)?

A UTI is a bacterial infection of the urinary tract, often caused by E. coli.

What are the risk factors for developing a UTI?

Risk factors include short female urethra, proximity to anus, sex, poor hygiene, immunosuppression, and diabetes.

What are common symptoms of a UTI?

Symptoms include dysuria, urgency, frequency, nocturia, cloudy/odorous urine, fever, and malaise.

What is cystitis and what can cause it?

Cystitis is bladder inflammation caused by bacteria, drugs, radiation, or catheters.

What is pyelonephritis?

Pyelonephritis is a kidney infection from ureteral spread, causing purulent exudate and inflammation.

What are the symptoms of acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN)?

Symptoms include dark/cloudy urine, high blood pressure, flank pain, malaise, and low urine output.

What is nephrosis and what are its symptoms?

Nephrosis is glomerular damage causing protein leakage, with symptoms of edema, blood pressure changes, and high cholesterol.

What is urolithiasis and what are its symptoms?

Urolithiasis, or kidney stones, causes pain, vomiting, and urinary difficulty.

What is acute renal failure and what are its symptoms?

Acute renal failure is caused by low blood flow or tubule inflammation/necrosis, with symptoms of elevated serum urea and low urine output.

What are the stages of chronic renal failure?

Stages include decreased reserve (reduced GFR, no symptoms), renal insufficiency (20% GFR, nitrogen retention), and uremia (end-stage with negligible GFR).