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Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to individual development and behavior.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

The application of psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity, work life, and employee selection.

Educational Psychology

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Developmental Psychology

The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Human Factors Psychology

A subfield of I/O psychology focusing on the interaction between people and machines, aiming to improve technology and safety.

Psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who can prescribe medications.

Criminal Psychology

The study of the thoughts, intentions, actions, and reactions of criminals and all that partakes in the criminal behavior.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Counseling Psychology

assists people with problems of normal life (family, work, marriage, etc)

Clinical Psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and disability.

Research Psychology

Focuses on conducting experiments to understand behaviors and mental processes, often in academic or lab settings.

Psychometrics

The science of measuring mental capacities and processes, including intelligence and personality.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior, including brain structures, neurochemicals, and genetics.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on human growth and potential, stressing personal growth and self-actualization (e.g., Maslow, Rogers).

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines psychological traits as adaptations shaped by natural selection to enhance survival and reproduction.

Behavioral/Learning Perspective

Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned (e.g., classical and operant conditioning).

Psychodynamic Perspective

Emphasizes unconscious drives and childhood experiences (e.g., Freud).

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Focuses on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors to understand behavior and mental processes.

Cultural Norms

Shared standards and patterns that guide behavior in a society or group.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon; the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that it was predictable.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimating the accuracy of beliefs and judgments.

Independent Variables

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Confounding Variables

Variables other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable, making it hard to determine cause and effect.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses)

A quality of a hypothesis that means it can be proven false through evidence; essential for scientific testing.

Dependent Variables

The factor in an experiment that is measured; it changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between groups.

Case Study

A descriptive research method involving an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well one predicts the other.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both increase or decrease together (e.g., studying more and earning higher grades).

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases (e.g., more absences, lower grades).

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that combines data from multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating the environment.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that states what results are expected.

Operational Definitions

 an “explanation” of how the dependent variable will be measured

Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score to define the center of a distribution (mean, median, mode).

Variation

A statistical measure of how much scores differ from each other and from the mean (includes range and standard deviation).

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that a particular score is above.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord)

The body’s main information-processing center, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The network of sensory and motor neurons that connects the central nervous system (brain + spinal cord) to the rest of the body.

• Sends sensory info from body → brain

• Sends motor commands from brain → body

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions (e.g., heartbeat, digestion).

Sympathetic Nervous System

A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving energy.

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system; specialized cells that transmit neural impulses.

Glial Cells

Support cells for neurons that provide structural support, nourishment, and protection, and assist in signal transmission.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that controls a reflex, involving sensory input, integration in the spinal cord, and motor output.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that connect sensory and motor neurons and integrate information.

Neural Transmission

The process of sending electrical and chemical signals between neurons via synapses.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, triggered when a neuron reaches the threshold of excitation.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The rule that a neuron either fires completely or not at all; the strength of a response doesn't vary.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium ions enter the neuron, making it more positive and triggering the firing.

Refractory Period

A brief period after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again until it resets.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge of a neuron when it's not firing; the inside is more negatively charged relative to the outside.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmitting a message.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease that damages the myelin sheath of neurons, slowing or blocking nerve signals.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that causes weakness in voluntary muscles by blocking acetylcholine receptors.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, reward, and motivation; linked to Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter affecting mood, appetite, and sleep; low levels are associated with depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal; plays a role in the fight-or-flight response.

Glutamate

The brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory and learning.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

The brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter; helps calm the nervous system.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, memory, and learning.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target organs.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

A hormone released in response to stress that increases heart rate and energy availability.

Leptin

A hormone that decreases hunger by signaling satiety to the brain.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite; known as the 'hunger hormone.'

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, produced by the pineal gland.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with bonding, love, trust, and social connection; also involved in childbirth and lactation.

Psychoactive Drugs

ILLEGAL Substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior by affecting brain chemistry. (meth, cocaine, etc)

Agonists

Drugs that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonists

Drugs that block or reduce the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their presence in the synapse.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and body functions (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Caffeine

A stimulant that increases alertness by blocking adenosine, a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that increases dopamine levels by blocking its reuptake.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (e.g., alcohol).

Alcohol

A depressant that impairs judgment and coordination by enhancing the effects of GABA.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without input (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).

Marijuana

A drug with both hallucinogenic and depressant effects; its active ingredient is THC.

Opioids

Drugs that relieve pain and produce euphoria by mimicking endorphins (e.g., morphine, heroin).

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid that binds to endorphin receptors and depresses central nervous system activity.

Tolerance

A condition in which greater amounts of a drug are needed to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

A chronic disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences.

Withdrawal

The physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a drug is reduced or stopped.

Brain Stem

The oldest part of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions (e.g., breathing, heartbeat).

Medulla

A structure in the brainstem that controls vital life functions like heart rate and breathing.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A network in the brainstem that plays a key role in arousal and attention.