nurs 116 mt1

Steps of the Scientific Method

Steps of the Scientific Method

observation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, report results, & repeat/replicate

Nature vs Nurture

Traits, capacities, and limitations each individual inherits genetically from parents (Before Birth) vs. All environmental influences that affect the development (After birth)

Multidirectional

Human characteristics change in every direction to reflect the development

Life-Span Perspective

Study of human development that takes into account all phases of life

Critical Period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

Sensitive Period

When a specific type of development is most likely to occur, although it may still happen later

Ecological-systems approach

The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life; This theory argues that the environment you grow up in affects every facet of your life

Microsystem

each person's immediate social contexts, such as family and peer group

Exosystem

local institutions such as schools and church

Macrosystem

the larger setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes

Mesosystem

the interactions and the connections among the other systems

Chronosystem

("time system") the historical context

Bioecological Systems

the internal biology of the person

Dynamic-systems approach

A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression — enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes or phenotypes

Psychoanalytic Theory

A theory developed by Erikson and Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Oral Stage

(Birth-1 year) The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities.

Anal Stage

(1-3 years) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

Phallic Stage

(3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

Latency

(6 to 11) a phase of dormant sexual feelings

Genital Stage

(adolescence to adulthood) maturation of sexual interests

Basic Trust vs Mistrust

(0-18 months) Babies trust they will be taken care of, if not mistrust develops

Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt

(18 months - 3 years) Children become self-sufficient or they doubt their own abilities

Initiative vs Guilt

(3 to 6 years) To develop the ability to try new things and to handle failure

Industry vs Inferiority

(6-11 years) Children learn to be productive and learn new skills or they begin to feel inferior

Identity vs Role Confusion

(12-19 years) teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

Intimacy vs Isolation

(20-25 years) enters on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships. Struggling at this stage, on the other hand, can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation.

Generativity vs Stagnation

(26-64 years) caring for others, empathy, and concern

making a positive impact and contributing to the world, such as through raising children, mentoring others, OR feeling stuck and unproductive, lacking a sense of purpose

Integrity vs Despair

(65-death) Existential Identity, dissatisfaction with life or feelings of wisdom

Who studied Behavioral Theory?

Watson, Skinner, Pavlov, and Bandura

What is behavioral theory/behaviorist approach?

Study of observable behavior; describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned

Classical Conditioning

The learning process by which a natural (unconditioned) response (e.g. fear when seeing a lion out of a cage) becomes triggered by a formerly neutral stimulus by repeatedly pairing it with the stimulus that naturally triggers that response.

Operant Conditioning

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated.)

Social Learning Theory

an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Cognitive Theory

Founded by Jean Piaget

Focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

Sensorimotor Stage

(0-2 years) infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world; learning is active; there is no conceptual or reflective thought

object permenance

object permenence

milestone in the sensorimotor stage where infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight and begin to think through mental actions

Preoperational Stage

(2-6 years) a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and social influence

egocentric

egocentric

children perceiving from their own perspective

Concrete Operational Stage

(6-11 years) children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Thinking is limited by direct experience

Formal Operational Stage

(12-adulthood) people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues

Scientific Observation

A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner - in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data.

Survey

A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questions, or some other means

Systematic Desensitization

treatment for phobias in which the patient is exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli and taught relaxation techniques

Cross-Sectional Research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

Longitudinal Research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

Cross-Sequential Research

a hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages and then follow those groups over the years

Germinal Period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

Embryonic Period

the period from three to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop

Fetal Period

Stage that’s 9 weeks-birth

• the sex is determined

• teeth and hair grows

• the neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems all develop

• sound and sight become coordinated

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Low Birthweight

A newborn weight of less than 5.5 pounds

• caused by malnutrition, drug use, and multiple births

• caused by malnutrition, drug use, and multiple births

• diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and depression in adulthood

When does birth happen and how is it initiated?

• around 38 weeks

• the hormone oxytocin gets released

Apgar Scale

A rating system used to assess a newborn baby's physical condition immediately after birth on the basis of five characteristics

• heart rate, respiratory effort, reflex irritability, muscle tone, and color

• 7,8,9 = normal

Infant Brain Development

the brain grows about 25% of adult weight to about 75% at age 2

Head-Sparing

A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition.

Transient Exuberance

The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life.

Pruning

the degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience

Experience-Expectant Growth (biological)

ordinary experiences "expected" by brain to grow normally

Experience-Dependent Growth (nurture)

process by which an individual's unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and organization; Human brains also have built-in plasticity; experiences vary by culture

Fine Motor Skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin

Gross Motor Skills

motor skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as walking

Primary Emotions

emotions that are first to develop:

• happiness, laughter, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, fear, contempt

• 2 social fears: separation anxiety & stranger wariness (~ 2 years old)

Secondary Emotions

result of social awareness and blends of primary emotions; they include pride, jealousy, embarrassment, and guilt

Effortful Control

regulating attention and emotion, self-soothing

temperament

Negative Mood

fearful, angry, unhappy

Exuberant

active, social, and not shy

Implicit Memory

not verbal, memory for movement, emotions, or thoughts that are not put into words

Explicit Memory

depends on language, memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

What are the Piaget’s sensorimotor intelligence stages?

Primary Circular Reactions, Secondary Circular Reactions, and Tertiary Circular Reactions

Stages 1-6

Primary Circular Reactions

Stages 1 & 2 (reflexes, habits and adaptations) development of sucking, swallowing, and other reflexes that become attuned to experiences needed for survival

Secondary Circular Reactions

Stages 3 & 4 (new adaptation and anticipation)

infants attempt to produce exciting experiences while exploring the effects of actions and bodily movements such as waving arms or asking for help with bodily gestures; thinking is more innovative

milestone: object permenance

Tertiary Circular Reactions

Stages 5 & 6 (act first, think later) active exploration and experimentation. Infants explore a range of new activities, varying their responses as a way of learning about the world; more creativity and imagination

What are the benefits of home births?

• less likely for surgery

• less drugs

• less stressful

• less intervention

Midwives

have lower rates of various complications and interventions than physician births, in part because midwives emphasize breathing, massage, and social support

Doula

A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.

Cesarean Section

When a baby is delivered by cutting open its mother's abdomen

• accounts for 10% of births

• breast feeding is harder

• maternal medical complications

• babies are more likely to have asthma or become obese (vaginal deliveries provide a good microbiome)

Holophase

a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought

Naming Explosion

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

Theory: Infant's Need to be Taught Language

learning language is acquired, step by step, through association and reinforcement; behaviorists believe that repetition and reinforcement strengthen the association between object and word

Theory: Social Impulses Foster Infant Language

infants communicate because humans are social beings, dependent on one another for survival and joy

Theory: Infants Teach Language Themselves

language learning is genetically programmed human genes allow experience-dependent language learning in infancy

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noah Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

Synchrony

a coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant Caregiver responsiveness to infant actions aids psychosocial and biological development

Social Referencing

Infants use caregiver displays/behaviors to learn about their world; Infant's rely on the caregiver for information and knowledge to know what to do

Attachment Type A: Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

an infant avoids connection with the caregiver; the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Attachment Type B: Secure Attachment

Infants feel comfy and confident; Concerned but not overwhelmed; The caregiver is a base for exploration providing assurance and enabling discovery; Their presence gives the child courage to explore

Type C Attachment: Insecure-Resistant /Ambivalent Attachment

an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident; the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

Attachment Type D: Disorganized Attachment

• an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

• the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

Proximal Parenting

caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching; the child is more obedient but less self aware

Distal Parenting

caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching; child is more independent

Working Model

an infant's early experiences are less influential than the interpretation of those experiences set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences

certain behaviors and attitudes are open to change with new experiences

Allocare

the care of children by people other than their biological parents

United States and Caring for Babies

20% of infants are cared soley by the mother;

• an infant's early experiences are less influential than the interpretation of those experiences

• an infant's early experiences are less influential than the interpretation of those experiences

Myelination

the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron