Human Growth and Development Across the Lifespan

These flashcards cover key concepts in human growth and development, emphasizing theories, stages, and important factors influencing development throughout the lifespan.

Multidirectional Development

Refers to the idea that throughout life, some dimensions of development expand while others shrink. Example: Learning a new language (gain) while physical speed decreases (loss).

Multidimensional Development

Development that includes biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. Example: Puberty (biological), problem-solving skills (cognitive), and forming friendships (socioemotional).

Plasticity

The capacity for change in response to experiences. Example: A child recovering from a brain injury by reorganizing brain functions to compensate.

Lifelong Development

The perspective that development occurs throughout the entire life span. Example: A 70-year-old learning a new skill like painting.

Multidisciplinary

Development is studied by multiple fields including psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Example: Research on early childhood education involving psychologists, sociologists, and neurologists.

Contextual Development

Development occurs within various contexts influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. Example: The impact of growing up during a recession on career choices.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate concerning genetic inheritance (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) in development. Example: Whether intelligence is primarily determined by genes or by upbringing and education.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Continuity theory posits development is gradual, while discontinuity theory claims it occurs in distinct stages. Example: Language acquisition being a gradual increase in vocabulary (continuity) versus Piaget's stages of cognitive development (discontinuity).

Stability vs. Change

Debate on whether individuals remain consistent over time or change throughout their development. Example: A shy child remaining shy as an adult (stability) versus becoming outgoing (change).

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Describes five stages of human development where pleasure focus shifts from mouth to anus to genitals. Example: The oral stage where an infant's pleasure is centered around feeding.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Proposes eight stages, each characterized by a specific crisis that must be resolved. Example: Adolescents dealing with 'Identity vs. Role Confusion'.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Children progress through four stages of cognitive development based on their understanding of the world. Example: A child in the preoperational stage believing toys are alive.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in cognitive development. Example: A child learning problem-solving skills through collaboration with a peer or adult.

Information Processing Theory

Focuses on how individuals process, store, and retrieve information. Example: How a student memorizes and recalls facts for a test.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Describes behavior changes resulting from rewards and punishments. Example: A child getting a treat for cleaning their room (reward) or a time-out for misbehaving (punishment).

Bandura's Social Cognitive Model

Illustrates the reciprocal interactions among behavior, cognition, and environment. Example: A child seeing an older sibling rewarded for a certain behavior (environment), deciding to imitate it (cognition), and then performing the behavior (behavior).

Ethology

The study of behavior influenced by biology and evolution, emphasizing critical periods. Example: Imprinting in geese, where goslings form an attachment to the first moving object they see during a critical period.

Descriptive Research

Aims to observe and record behavior without proving causation. Example: A study observing and documenting the play behaviors of preschoolers.

Correlational Research

Describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. Example: Finding a positive correlation between hours studied and test scores, but not implying causation.

Experimental Research

A carefully regulated procedure to determine causal relationships between variables. Example: Testing the effect of a new teaching method (independent variable) on student performance (dependent variable).

Case Study

An in-depth study of a single individual. Example: A detailed psychological evaluation of a child with a rare developmental disorder.

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares individuals of different ages to assess differences. Example: Comparing the memory abilities of 20-year-olds, 40-year-olds, and 60-year-olds at the same time.

Longitudinal Study

Studies the same participants over an extended period. Example: Tracking the cognitive development of a group of children from infancy through adolescence.

Dominant vs. Recessive Genes

Dominant genes override recessive genes in phenotypic expression. Example: If a child inherits a gene for brown eyes (dominant) and a gene for blue eyes (recessive), they will have brown eyes.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype is genetic material, whereas phenotype is the observable characteristics. Example: Having the genes for blonde hair (genotype) versus actually having blonde hair (phenotype).

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Include conditions like Down syndrome and Turner syndrome. Example: Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Genetic Abnormalities

Include conditions like Sickle Cell Anemia and Fragile X syndrome. Example: Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic disorder affecting red blood cells due to a mutation in a single gene.

Life-Span Perspective

Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation across a lifetime. Example: An adult continuing to learn and adapt new skills for their job.

Social Cognitive Theory of Development

Focuses on behavior, environment, and cognition in development. Example: A child observing a parent read (environment), developing a positive attitude towards reading (cognition), and then choosing to read themselves (behavior).

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

An environmental systems theory comprising several layers influencing development. Example: A child's development being influenced by their family (microsystem), peer group (microsystem), school policies (exosystem), and cultural values (macrosystem).

Twin Study

Compares behavioral similarities between identical and fraternal twins. Example: Research comparing the IQ scores of identical twins raised apart versus identical twins raised together.

Adoption Study

Investigates the influence of heredity and environment in behavioral traits. Example: Comparing the personality traits of adopted children to both their biological and adoptive parents.

Heredity-Environment Correlations

Individuals' genes may affect the environments to which they are exposed. Example: An active child (genetically predisposed) seeking out sports teams (active correlation).

Prenatal Stages of Development

Includes the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages. Example: The germinal stage involves the creation of the zygote, followed by the embryonic stage with organ formation, and finally the fetal stage for growth and maturation.

Teratogen

Any agent that can cause birth defects or negatively alter outcomes. Example: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy leading to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.

Cephalocaudal Growth Pattern

Growth sequence from head to toe. Example: Babies learning to control their heads before they can control their legs.

Proximodistal Growth Pattern

Growth sequence from the center of the body outward. Example: Infants developing control over their torso before their fingers.

Reflexes

Built-in reactions to stimuli that infants exhibit. Example: The rooting reflex, where an infant turns their head towards a touch on their cheek.

Dynamic Systems Theory

Explains how motor behaviors are developed and refined. Example: A baby learning to walk by iteratively exploring and refining their balance, coordination, and strength.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation is the interaction of sensory receptors with information; perception is the interpretation of what was sensed. Example: Hearing sound waves (sensation) versus recognizing a melody (perception).

Affordances

Opportunities for interaction provided by objects. Example: A chair affords sitting, or a handle affords grasping.

Piaget's Schemes

Mental representations that organize knowledge in children. Example: A child's 'grasping scheme' for picking up objects.

Accommodations (Piaget)

Adjusting schemes to incorporate new information. Example: A child learning that not all four-legged animals are "dogs" and creating new schemes for "cat" or "horse."

Assimilation (Piaget)

Using existing schemes to deal with new information. Example: A child calling all four-legged animals "dogs" because their existing scheme for "dog" is the only one they have for animals.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not perceived. Example: A baby searching for a toy that has been hidden under a blanket.

Equilibrium (Piaget)

Balance between assimilation and accommodation. Example: A child achieves equilibrium when their understanding of the world (schemes) can account for new experiences.

Temperament

Individual differences in behavioral styles and emotional responses. Example: A baby being naturally calm and easy-going versus being highly active and reactive.

Secure Attachment

Infants use their caregiver as a secure base for exploration. Example: A child exploring a new room confidently, periodically looking back at their parent, and returning for comfort when distressed.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Infants avoid contact with caregiver, showing indifference. Example: A child ignoring their parent upon reunion after a brief separation.

Insecure-Resistant Attachment

Infants seek closeness but resist contact with caregiver. Example: A child wanting to be held by their parent but then pushing them away.

Insecure-Disorganized Attachment

Infants lack a clear attachment strategy and show confusion. Example: A child showing dazed behavior or contradictory actions towards their caregiver.

Egocentrism (Piaget)

Inability of a child to see things from perspectives other than their own. Example: A young child covering their eyes and thinking no one can see them.

Animism (Piaget)

Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities. Example: A child believing their doll feels pain when it falls.

Conservation (Piaget)

Awareness that altering appearance does not change basic properties. Example: A child understanding that a tall, thin glass of water holds the same amount as a short, wide glass.

Scaffolding

Adjusting support in teaching to fit the learner's current level. Example: A parent providing less help as a child becomes more proficient at assembling a puzzle.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Example: A child being able to solve a math problem with a teacher's help, but not yet by themselves.

Social Role Theory of Gender

Gender differences arise from the contrasting societal roles of men and women. Example: Girls being encouraged to play with dolls (nurturing role) while boys are encouraged to play with trucks (mechanical role).

Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender

The child's attraction to the opposite-sex parent followed by identification with the same-sex parent. Example: A boy developing an Oedipus complex and then identifying with his father.

Social Cognitive Theory of Gender

Gender development occurs through observing and imitating behaviors. Example: A girl observing her mother cooking and then imitating that behavior in her play.

Authoritarian Parenting

A restrictive style where parents expect obedience with little verbal exchange. Example: A parent telling a child "Because I said so" without further explanation.

Authoritative Parenting

A nurturing style that encourages independence while maintaining limits. Example: A parent explaining to a child why a rule is in place and discussing consequences.

Neglectful Parenting

Involvement is minimal, associated with social incompetence in children. Example: A child often being left unsupervised with little emotional support from parents.

Indulgent Parenting

Highly involved parents place few demands or controls on children. Example: A parent allowing their child to make all their own decisions, even if they are not age-appropriate.

Sensorimotor Play

Play derived from infants exercising sensorimotor schemes. Example: A baby repeatedly shaking a rattle to hear the sound.

Practice Play

Repetitive behavior during skill acquisition. Example: A toddler repeatedly throwing a ball to improve coordination.

Pretense/Symbolic Play

Transforming aspects of the environment into symbols. Example: A child pretending a block is a phone or a stick is a sword.

Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

Children can think logically about concrete events. Example: A child understanding that rearranging coins doesn't change their number, even if the row looks longer.

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

Children use mental representations but lack logical operations. Example: A child drawing a picture of their house from memory but being unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events.

Short-Term Memory

Memory that briefly holds a few items before they are forgotten. Example: Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it.

Long-Term Memory

A relatively permanent and limitless memory store. Example: Recalling childhood memories or important historical facts.

Working Memory

The active manipulation of information for cognitive tasks. Example: Mentally calculating a tip amount in a restaurant.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Identifies analytical, creative, and practical intelligence as key components. Example: Someone analytical excels at test-taking, creative at generating new ideas, and practical at solving real-world problems.

Gardner's Theory of Intelligence

Proposes multiple intelligences including verbal, mathematical, and spatial. Example: A person with high verbal intelligence excelling in writing and poetry.

Giftedness

Having above-average intelligence or superior talent. Example: A child demonstrating exceptional mathematical abilities at a young age.

Intellectual Disability

Limited mental ability characterized by low IQ and difficulty in everyday life. Example: An individual with significant challenges in adaptive behaviors such as self-care and communication.

Erikson's Industry vs. Inferiority

Children's interest in how things are made can lead to a sense of competence. Example: A child feeling proud after successfully building a model airplane.

Constructivist Approach

Emphasizes learning through active engagement and guidance. Example: Students working on a group project to discover solutions rather than just listening to a lecture.

Direct Instruction Approach

A structured method focused on teacher control and mastery of skills. Example: A teacher explicitly demonstrating a math procedure and having students repeatedly practice it.

Mindset

Refers to beliefs about one's ability to change and grow. Example: A "growth mindset" believes abilities can be developed through effort, while a "fixed mindset" believes abilities are predetermined.

Testosterone

The male sex hormone influencing male characteristics. Example: Testosterone plays a crucial role in the development of deeper voice and facial hair during puberty.

Estradiol

The primary female sex hormone. Example: Estradiol is responsible for breast development and uterine changes during the menstrual cycle.

Hormones

Chemicals regulating activities of different body cells. Example: Insulin regulating blood sugar levels.

Personal Fable

An adolescent belief in their uniqueness and invulnerability. Example: An adolescent thinking, "It won't happen to me," when engaging in risky behavior.

Imaginary Audience

Adolescent belief that they are the center of attention. Example: An adolescent feeling intense self-consciousness, believing everyone is watching and judging their every move.

Self-Esteem

One's feelings of self-worth. Example: Feeling confident and capable about one's abilities.

Identity

One's sense of self, particularly during adolescence. Example: An adolescent exploring different interests and values to determine who they are and what they stand for.

Self-Concept

Understanding and evaluation of who we are. Example: A person describing themselves as an athlete, a kind friend, and a diligent student.

Four Stages of Identity

Includes diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement stages. Example: James Marcia's Ego Identity Statuses describe these stages of identity development.

Self-Regulation

Managing one's thoughts and behaviors to meet short and long-term goals. Example: A student prioritizing studying over social events to achieve good grades.

Middle-Aged Person

Typically refers to individuals aged 45-60. Example: A person navigating career changes and family responsibilities in their 50s.

Types of Age

Includes chronological, biological, psychological, and social age. Example: A person who is 60 chronologically, but runs marathons (biological), maintains a positive outlook (psychological), and is active in community leadership (social).

Climacteric

Transition period marked by reduced fertility. Example: Women experiencing perimenopause as part of the climacteric transition.

Menopause

Natural cessation of menstruation. Example: A woman in her late 40s or early 50s experiencing the permanent end of her menstrual cycle.

Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid intelligence declines with age; crystallized intelligence increases. Example: Solving abstract puzzles using fluid intelligence, and using accumulated knowledge to solve a problem using crystallized intelligence.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Desire to leave a legacy vs. feeling unproductive. Example: A middle-aged adult mentoring younger colleagues (generativity) versus feeling unfulfilled and self-absorbed (stagnation).

Big Five Personality Traits

Includes openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. Example: Someone high in 'openness' might enjoy trying new things, while someone high in 'conscientiousness' is organized and disciplined.

Life Span

Maximum length of life, usually around 120-125 years for humans. Example: Jeanne Calment, who lived to 122, represents an individual reaching near the human life span limit.

Life Expectancy

Average number of years a person can expect to live. Example: In many developed countries, the life expectancy is currently around 80 years.

Cognitive Mechanics

The brain's processing capabilities related to sensory input and memory. Example: The speed at which an older adult can solve a new puzzle.

Cognitive Pragmatics

Culture-based mental functions including knowledge and skills. Example: An older adult's accumulated wisdom and expertise in their chosen profession.