unit 3 aos 2 - learning and memory

learning def

relatively permanent behaviour change from experience

• can be intentional or unintentional

• can be passive or active

behaviourist approaches to learning

learning from associations between envo stimuli and behavioural responses

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

stimulus def

event or something that detected through senses

response def

behaviour responding to stimulus

classical conditioning def

involuntary passive learning involving repeated association of two or more diff stimuli

how to know learning has occurred via classical conditioning

when the CS consistently produces response it didn’t previously cause

classical conditioning 3 phase model

BEFORE CONDITIONING:

• NS (state) produces no response

• UCS (state) produces UCR (state behaviour @ ucs)

DURING CONDITIONING:

• the NS (state) is presented multiple times immediately before UCS (state) to produce UCR (state)

AFTER CONDITIONING:

• the NS (state) becomes the CS and on its own can produce CR (state behaviour @ CS)

aversion therapy and classical conditioning

• used to condition people to stop unwanted behaviour

• e.g. using foul smelling substance painted on nail to stop nail biting

operant conditioning def

active learning where likelihood of a voluntary behaviour occurring is influenced by its consequences

operant conditioning 3 phase model

ANTECEDENT:

• envo cue to trigger behaviour

• object or event

BEHAVIOUR:

• voluntary response to antecedent

CONSEQUENCE:

• occurs after behaviour response

• can be reinforcement (increases likelihood of behaviour repeated in future) or punishment (decreases likelihood of behaviour repeated in future)

— positive reinforcement: add something desirable

— negative reinforcement: take away something undesirable

— positive punishment: add something undesirable

— negative punishment: take away something desirable

operant conditioning factors affecting reinforcement and punishment

• order of presentation: consequence needs to occur after behaviour so learner makes association

• timing: consequence needs to occur close as possible after behaviour

• appropriateness of consequence: it has to actually impact/be relevant to learner

classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

• CC is learning via association of two unrelated stimuli, OC is learning via association of behaviour and consequence

• CC 3 phases is before, during, after conditioning, OC 3 phases is antecedent, behaviour, consequence

• CC learner is passive, OC learner is active

• CC response is involuntary, OC response is voluntary

observational learning

when learner uses observation of a model’s actions + the consequences to guide their own future actions

the 5 steps of observational learning

ARRMR

attention

retention

reproduction

motivation

reinforcement

observational learning step 1

ATTENTION

• learner actively watches model’s actions and the consequences

• more similarities between model and learner = more successful model = more chance learner imitate behaviour

• learner more likely actively watch if model: is attractive, has high status, likeable or similar to learner age or gender

observational learning step 2

RETENTION

• learner retain mental representation of model’s behaviour over time for future use

observational learning step 3

REPRODUCTION

• learner must have physical and mental capabilities to perform behaviour

observational learning step 4

MOTIVATION

• learner desires to perform behaviour

• if behaviour has known reward = higher desire to perform behaviour

observational learning step 5

REINFORCEMENT

• behaviour consequence influences learner’s likelihood of repeating it in future

• if behaviour reinforced = more likelihood learner repeating behaviour in future

• can be external (learn by direct consequences), vicarious (learn from other’s consequences of that behaviour), self (learn from reaching goals we set ourselves)

exam trap for observational learning model

when doing ARRMR, after attention and retention the behaviour is being performed not learned

vicarious learning

• classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously by observational learning — vicarious conditioning

• learner watches model’s behaviour + consequences → either reinforcement or punishment → then they behave same way, modified way or avoid behaving that way in future

• bandura’s bobo doll experiment is on this

ATSI knowledge systems…

• represent the oldest + longest continuing forms of learning in aus

• are unique and complex that diff to western concepts of learning

• is diverse across diff language + cultural grps

• has connection + understanding between learner and teacher

• is multimodal (learning thru many forms)

learner in ATSI knowledge systems

situated within a system of relationships and on country

Country in ATSI knowledge systems

refers to lands, waters, skies which First Nations peoples are connected thru ancestral ties

kinship connections in ATSI knowledge systems

relationships people have with others, and the knowledge + entities within Country they are responsible for

the 8 ways of knowing — multimodal learning

• story sharing (learning via narrative)

• symbol & images (learning via images and metaphors e.g. using art or objects to understand/represent concepts)

• learning maps

• non verbal

• community links

• deconstruct/reconstruct

• non-linear

• land links

observational learning + ATSI ways of knowing

• older inds model behaviours to younger inds in community so they can mimic

• model behaviours in natural contexts

• behaviour replicated generationally

memory def

active info-processing system that receives, stores, retrieves info

memory process

sensory input → encoding (conv sensory input into usable code that can be stored in memory) → storage (holds encoded info for time period) → retrieval (locates stored info and returns to consciousness when needed)

atkinson and shiffrin's model of memory

register sensory info → process some as sensory memory (can fade and forget here)→ if attention given → short-term memory (kept here via rehearsal or if no rehearsal then forget) → encoding (via elaborative rehearsal) → stored as long-term memory → can then be retrieved back into short term memory by retrieval cues for use

sensory memory def

info stored in its exact sensory form

• (f): prevents us from being overwhelmed from too much sensory info as filters out what’s not relevant

• quick forgetting allows us to see world smoothly

• if given attention to then moved to short term memory but if not then forgotten

• capacity = unlimited

• duration = 0.3 to 4 seconds

short term memory def

stores info ind is consciously aware of at any moment

• capacity = 5-9 info pieces held at one time

• duration = 15-30 seconds

• varies between ppl

• when full — new pieces only added by pushing others out

• aka working memory (combines new info from sensory memory with stored info from LTM for mental activities)

short term memory — chunking and maintenance rehearsal

• chunking → increases STM capacity by storing groups of items instead of singular items

• maintenance rehearsal → increases STM duration via rote repetition of info → if interrupted then info lost quickly

long term memory

relatively permanent memory storage holding large info amounts for long time period

• info is inactive and needs to be retrieved to STM for use

• diff info types stored in diff types LTM

• storage capacity = vast, maybe unlimited

• storage duration = maybe permanent

elaborative rehearsal def

linking new info in meaningful way to other new info or old info already stored LTM

• more effective than maintenance rehearsal → more active process, and linking info creates cues to help locate and retrieve info later

LTM - explicit memory

memory with awareness

• semantic memory = facts + knowledge about world (includes general and academic knowledge, rules, word meanings etc)

• episodic memory = personally experienced events (can include details like time, place, psychological state when event occurred, like a persona mental diary of our life’s episodes)

LTM - implicit memory

memory without awareness

• procedural memory = motor skills + actions (skill learned then shown through perfomance that needs little attempt to retrieve info, e.g tying shoelaces)

• classically conditioned memory = conditioned response to conditioned stimuli (via classical conditioning)

explicit memory vs implicit memory

• em = retrieve memory with awareness, im = retrieve memory without awareness

• em subtypes = episodic + semantic, im subtypes = procedural + classically conditioned

• em example = remember phone number, im example = knowing how to brush teeth

strengths and limitations of the memory model

— strengths: clear to understand, easy to test and gives high reliability, clear structure and division of memory process shown

— limitations: sometimes considered to be oversimplified, doesn’t account for ind diffs, can contradict recent studies that show info transfer into LTM can happen w/o rehearsal

amygdala

• consolidates implicit memories that involve emotions

• initiates F/F/F response and stress hormones

• involved with classical conditioning emotional responses

hippocampus

• consolidates + encodes new explicit memory

• doesn’t store memories here

• just transforms temp memory in STM to long-lasting memory in LTM

• interacts with amygdala to link emotions to explicit memories

neocortex

• storage of explicit memory

• top layer of cerebral cortex

amygdala, hippocampus, neocortex interactions

amygdala consolidates implicit memories that involve emotions → signals to hc to consolidate and encode explicit memories that have implicit emotions → hc consolidates and encodes new explicit memory → sent to neocortex to store explicit memories

cerebellum

• encodes and stores implicit memories involved with movement + conditioned motor responses

• needed for motor learning + voluntary movement

• focuses on coordination of motor skills

basal ganglia

• consolidates and stores implicit memories involved with habits + conditioned motor responses

• plans and coordinates fine motor control for sequenced actions from implicit memories in fluid manner + automatically — e.g. habits

• not memories associated with emotions

cerebellum vs basal ganglia

• both consolidates implicit procedural memories

• both involved in fine motor skills

• c = voluntary motor skills, bg = habits

• c = focus on coordination motor skills, bg = focus on motor skills performed in fluid + fast manner

cerebellum, basal ganglia and neocortex interactions

cerebellum and basal ganglia interact → memories associated with habit formation, fine motor movements, reflexes sent to neocortex → neocortex stores these as implicit long-term memories

surgery on hippocampus

• cannot consolidate new explicit memories into LTM anymore

• doesn’t affect procedural (implicit?) memories

• when one removed no major effect but if two then significant issue

surgery on amygdala

• issues with consolidating implicit emotional memories

• cannot recognise emotions in others esp fear

• cannot develop conditioned fear responses

surgery on cerebellum

affected consolidation + storage of procedural memories

surgery on neocortex

• impaired storage + retrieval of specific explicit memories

• depends on lobe and hemisphere surgery on

surgery on basal ganglia

• unable to consolidate + retrieve some implicit memories related to habits, unconscious procedures etc

when we retrieve past events and imagine future events…

semantic and episodic memories can interact as LTM

autobiographical memory def

memory system of episodes recalled from ind’s life from mixture of episodic + semantic memories

• type of explicit LTM

• involves reconstruction (combine stored info tgt to form coherent complete memory)

• hippocampus and neocortex allow retrieval (MRI shown)

episodic vs autobiographical memory

• episodic memory = series of single past events

• autobiographical memory = linking multiple past events tgt to form personal history

episodic future thinking

• episodic and semantic memory allow ability to construct future possible scenarios

• projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience event that might occur in personal future

• hippocampus and neocortex lobes activated for this (MRI shown)

episodic vs semantic memory to forget

episodic more easily forgotten than semantic

• because new info constantly into episodic hence hard to encode + store all

alzheimer’s disease def

type of dementia involving gradual widespread degeneration of neurons

• progressively causes memory decline + declining cognitive and social skills + personality changes

• type of neurodegenerative disease

how to diagnose alzheimer’s disease

• via CT, MRI, fMRI scans

• but note only post-mortem study can view brain lesions properly

• note MRI’s don’t show active brain → series of scans taken over period of time → physicians track changes in scans (decline in brain struc)

what is alzheimer’s believed to be caused by

build up of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

amyloid plaques def

protein build ups outside neurons → affects their synapses → hence ability to comms with other neurons

neurofibrillary tangles def

protein build ups inside neuron → stops substances passing thru → neuron dies

neuronal death — alzhiemer’s disease

begins in hippocampus → move outwards to cerebral cortex→ to hindbrain

alzheimer’s disease symptoms

— as neuronal death begin in hippocampus → STM difficulties + forming new explicit LTMs (anterograde amnesia) → disease progresses → autobiographical memory decline→ semantic memory declines → recognition ability declines → episodic future thinking declines → later stages → procedural memories decline → person lose ability to perform skills

aphantasia def

disorder where ind lacks ability. to generate mental imagery

people with vs people without aphantasia

• ppl without = use episodic and semantic memory to create mental imager

• ppl with = unable to visualise richly detailed episodic memories as unable to generate mental imagery

people with aphantasia also…

struggle to retrieve autobiographical events + construct possible future scenarios → they just apply non-visual components hence more difficult + less vivid

mnemonic def

any technique that improves/enhances memory

mnemonic notes

• active at encoding stage (of memory processing)

• at same time of info encoding, retrieval cues also encoded

• allows organisation + easier location and retrieval of info in ltm

• organises as whole and connects new info to existing info → retrieval of part of it usually cause retrieval of all of it

types of mnemonics in sd

• acronyms

• acrostics

• method of loci

written cultures def

stories and info shared + kept via reading and writing

e.g. mnemonics = acrostics, acronyms, method of loci

oral cultures def

ppl comms vital info and spread stories via word of mouth

e.g. mnemonics = stories, poems, sung narratives

mnemonic — acrostics

• first letters of items create phrase/rhyme/poem to aid memory

• useful for remembering order

• link new info to familiar phrases to help encode + store info

• first letter = retrieval cue to bring info to STM for use

• e.g. north south east west = NESW = never eat soggy worms

mnemonic — acronym

• first letter of items form pronounceable word to air memory

• link info to familiar words or sounds

• first letter = retrieval cue to bring info to STM for use

• e.g. SAME = sensory afferent motor efferent

mnemonic — method of loci

• committing a familiar location / sequence of locations to memory → then visually link these with info that needs to be recalled

• each location = retrieval cue that makes easier to retrieve info when needed

• steps:

1. visualise familiar location / route

2. select several memorable landmarks

3. create visual imagery for each item (the more bizarre / funny, more likelihood of item recall)

4. link each item to one memorable landmark

5. imagine walking route or being at location and retrieving each item by observing each landmark

similarities between acrostics, acronyms, method of loci

• make info more elaborate

• organise new info into cohesive whole

• more useful for lists of info

• useful for info that must be known but not understood

sung narratives def

story told thru singing, music, sometimes dance that contain large amounts historical, religious, cultural, moral teachings to others

— combo of techniques adds to mnemonic value

— more memorable as song + with song cycles

— usually related to specific landscape location

song vs sung narratives

• sung narratives can just use rhythm (critical component) — music accompanies often drums or clapsticks

• if song then has rhythm, music and may have tonal variation and envo sounds

Country for ATSI memory systems

landscape + cultural knowledge associated with it

songlines def

sequence of short sung narratives associated with specific locations linked via physical or imagined path thru Country

— diff language groups diff words for songlines

— tells creation stories of ancestral journey thru landscape, seas, skies, knowledge of spiritual beliefs, laws, how to survive on Country, food and med sources

— can recall vast amounts info

— also can be sung maps of Country → connect diff clans and Nations along trade routes

— how knowledge is patterned on Country

— performances can evoke emotions → increases memory retrieval

neuroscience of songlines

• hippocampus activated with spatial knowledge from info linking to landscapes → consolidates STM into LTM explicit memories via neural pathways → allows thinking of one aspect to trigger memory of other (info and location) = temporal snapshot

• the more vivid or grotesque the story the more active brain neurons the more likely memory encoded and stored

songlines vs method of loci

• songlines have performance of knowledge using song and movement at each location but method of loci just associates info to landmarks

• songlines layer new info on top of what already known at each location but method of loci not necessarily layered

• songlines basis of knowledge system from Country but method of loci not necessarily

songlines memory process

1. encoding = thru listening, repeating, practicing, instruction, observational learning

— strengthened via journey navigation, narrative structure, vivid imagery, emotions, rhythm and melody, dance, symbols in art

2. storage = within networks of kinship relationships between locations and entities in Country that song about + pathways thru Country store knowledge

3. retrieval = learning on then navigating thru Country enhances retrieval as more cues + brings to mind the song and story hence the knowledge