OpenStax Psychology 2e - Full

American Psychological Association

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

dissertation

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

ology

suffix that denotes "scientific study of"

PhD

(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

PsyD

(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

postdoctoral training program

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

psyche

Greek word for soul

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany

Plato

Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens.

Descartes

French philosopher, nativist, and dualist

Dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Erik Erikson

famous for his 8-stage model of psychosocial development; neo-Freudian

John B. Watson

developed behaviorism ( the study of observable behavior)

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Albert Bandura

Social learning theory; Bobo doll experiment

Abraham Maslow

created hierarchy of needs

Lawrence Kohlberg

Theory of Moral Development

Naomi Weisstein

Credited with starting the feminist revolution in psychology

Anna Freud

Continued her father's work in psychoanalysis with an emphasis on children.

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Democritus

Greek philosopher that said all matter is made of tiny particles called "atomos" or atoms

behaviorist perspective

the psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli

psychoanalytic perspective

the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

cognitive perspective

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

The Interpretation of Dreams

the Bible of Psychoanalysis by Freud

sociocultural perspective

perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Albert Ellis

rational emotive behavior therapy

Critical Thinking

the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

Dissertation

a formal and long paper, written for a degree at a university or college

Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory

Solomon Asch

Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines.

Harry Harlow

Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers

Prefrontal Lobotomy

example of what happens when we rely on our subjective impressions; brain damage before and after the surgery remained the same

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb

Healthy Skpeticism

strive to think critically about information we encounter (regardless of the source)

Facts

observable realities

Opinions

personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes

Theory

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct

Falsifiable

capable of being false

Case Study

in depth study of rare cases (does not tell cause and effect); ex: Phineas Gage, H.M., Little Albert

Anecdote

a study of one person

Naturalistic Observation

watching behavior in real-world settings

High Degree of External Validity

extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world

Low Degree of Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences

Observer Bias

the tendency of the observer to unconsciously skew observations to fit the research goal/expectations

Operational Definition

being specific about what is being observed; important to specify how we're measuring our variables ahead of time

Self-Report Measures and Surveys

surveys and questionnaires;

advantages:

-easy to administer

-subtle information

disadvantages:

-may not have insight

-may not be honest

Population

everyone in a particular group

Sample

a portion of a population to be studied

Random Selection

procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Reliability

repeatable/consistency in the data or results

Validity

measure of something being measured (if valid, also reliable)

Positive Impression Management

faking good (better than reality)

Malingering

faking bad (worse than reality)

Ratings Data

rating the behavior of others

Halo Effect

tendency of ratings of one positive characteristics to spill over to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics

Leniency Effect

tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous (opposite of Halo Effect)

Archival Research

looking back at old records to obtain data, hard copy or electronically

Longitudinal Research

a research that tests the same group of individuals over an extended period of time

Attrition Rates

dropouts/people lost over the course of the study

Cross-sectional Research

a "snapshot;" a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at a given time

Cohort Effect

an effect that different age groups give different reaction results not necessarily due to their age

Correlational Design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated; depicted in a scatter plot; correlations have predictive value; CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION

Negative Correlation

as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down)

Positive Correlation

as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the same direction (both goes up)

Confounding Variable

third-variable problem

Illusory Correlation

when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists

Confirmation Bias

looking for evidence to support a preexisting belief and ignoring evidence that contradicts it

Experimental Group

receives the manipulation

Control Group

does not receive the manipulation

Independent Variable

experimenter manipulates

Dependent Variable

experimenter measures to see whether manipulation had an effect

Confounds

any difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes it impossible to interpret any findings

Cause and Effect

possible to infer, w/ random assignment and manipulation of independent variable

Placebo Effect

blind