Psychopathology

Q1. Abnormality can be defined as ‘the failure to function adequately’. Outline and evaluate this definition of abnormality (6)

AO1>
FFA states abnormal behaviour is when an individual isn’t able to cope with everyday life. This prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviours society would expect from them e.g getting out of bed / holding down a job (Defined by Rosenhan and Seligman into 7 sections) and GAF is a way of measuring how well individuals function in everyday life considering Rosenhan’s 7 sections + occupational functioning

AO3>
:] Considers how the individual feels and takes patient's perspective into account by considering the experience and perspective of the patient as it considers the role of personal distress - acknowledges experiences + recognises the people who need help

:] GAF is a scale which allows extent of FFA to be measured which means the decision of whether a behaviour is abnormal or not can be made in a relatively objective way. The behaviour is also seen as observable (can be seen by others bc they might not hold a job down) which means others can intervene if they’re incapable of helping themselves

:[ Not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress / failure to function
e.g psychopaths would be considered abnormal due to their lack of empathy, but many tend to function very well and hold positions of authority in society who show no personal distress. This shows people can still function normally even with a mental disorder

:[ Cultural bias - someone who’s functioning adequately is diff across all cultures e.g lower class / non-white ppl are more frequently diagnosed as their lifestyles may differ from the dominant western culture (may lead to judgement)

:] Subjective - who decides what’s an adequate function? Some people have diff. ideas to what FFA is. Although there are objective assessments, it is still up to that person to decide what is normal and not (relies on individual judgement)

Q2. Outline two limitations of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality (4)

:[ The criteria are too strict as it’s challenging to achieve all requirements at once. v few ppl would be able to do so, suggesting v few ppl are psychologically healthy

:[ Subjective and not operationalised, so being defined as abnormal isn’t objective

:[ Cultural relativism - Ideas are culture-bound, based on Western idea of IMH (if applied to collectivist cultures, we’d see higher incidences of abnormality) Limits usefulness of this definition to certain cultural groups therefore lacks generalisability

Q3. Identify one definition of abnormality and explain one limitation associated with this definition (3)

FFA states abnormal behaviour is when an individual isn’t able to cope with everyday life, preventing them from carrying out the range of behaviours society would expect from them.
:[ One limitation is everyday life varies across culture and ability to cope depends on what is seen as normal everyday life (cultural relativism) therefore, ‘adequate’ behaviour varies from one culture to another

Q4. Bina has been diagnosed with depression. Her doctor says that depression is a common problem but Bina is miserable. She cannot be bothered to get washed in the morning and her manager is unhappy that she is taking a lot of time off work. When she does go to work she is irritable, has temper tantrums and is rude to customers.
Explain whether or not Bina’s behaviour might be considered to be abnormal (6)

Statistical infrequency - Her doctor says depression is quite common so her behaviour shouldn’t be considered abnormal
FFA - Bina is neglecting personal hygiene and takes lots of time off work so her behaviour could be considered abnormal
Deviation from IMH - Bina is miserable so her behaviour could be considered abnormal
Deviation from social norms - Bina has temper trantrums / is rude to customers which isn’t the norm for adults in a work environment therefore her behaviour could be considered abnormal

Q5. “Abnormality is very difficult to define. It can be hard to decide where normal behaviour ends and abnormal behaviour begins.” Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (12)

AO1>
FFA states abnormal behaviour is when an individual isn’t able to cope with everyday life. This prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviours society would expect from them e.g getting out of bed / holding down a job (Defined by Rosenhan and Seligman into 7 sections) and GAF is a way of measuring how well individuals function in everyday life considering Rosenhan’s 7 sections + occupational functioning

Deviation from IMH is a humanistic definition by Jahoda in 1958. Rather than defining abnormality, it defines features of IMH and deviation from these suggests abnormality. This judges mental health in the same way as physical health - a person should meet certain criteria to be considered mentally + physically healthy e.g normal BP

The 6 features are RAPSAP. Resistance to stress (being able to cope) / Adapting to env (adjusting to situations) / Personal autonomy (being able to function independently) / Self-actualisation (should develop strengths and trying to reach full potential) / Accurate perception of reality (seeing things as they are) / Positive self attitude (high self-esteem and strong sense of identity). The more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are.

AO3>
:] Considers how the individual feels and takes patient's perspective into account by considering the experience and perspective of the patient as it considers the role of personal distress - acknowledges experiences + recognises the people who need help

:] GAF is a scale which allows extent of FFA to be measured which means the decision of whether a behaviour is abnormal or not can be made in a relatively objective way. The behaviour is also seen as observable (can be seen by others bc they might not hold a job down) which means others can intervene if they’re incapable of helping themselves

:[ Not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress / failure to function
e.g psychopaths would be considered abnormal due to their lack of empathy, but many tend to function very well and hold positions of authority in society who show no personal distress. This shows people can still function normally even with a mental disorder

:[ Cultural bias - someone who’s functioning adequately is diff across all cultures e.g lower class / non-white ppl are more frequently diagnosed as their lifestyles may differ from the dominant western culture (may lead to judgement)

:] Subjective - who decides what’s an adequate function? Some people have diff. ideas to what FFA is. Although there are objective assessments, it is still up to that person to decide what is normal and not (relies on individual judgement)

:] Holistic (considers multiple factors and suggestions for personal development) which allows for clear goals to be set / focused on to achieve IMH

:] Positive approach (focuses on pos. not neg.)
Offers alt perspectives on mental disorders that focuses on ideal rather than unideal. Jahoda's ideas were never taken up by med profs, it has had some influence with the 'pos. psych movement'. The strength lies in its pos. outlook and influence on humanistic approaches

:[ Cultural Relativism - Criteria are culture-bound
Goal of self-actualisation is relevant to individualist cultures, not collectivist (needs of the group, not one person). If we apply this criteria to collectivist cultures, we would see higher incidences of abnormality thus limiting usefulness of this definition to certain cultural groups. Therefore lacks generalisability

:[ Applies principles of physical health to mental health
Physical illnesses tend to have physical causes e.g infection so easy to detect and diagnose. While it’s possible some mental disorders have physical causes (drug abuse) they’re usually consequences of life experiences. Thus, unlikely we can diagnose mental abnormalities in the same way as we diagnose physical ones

:[ Unrealistic Criteria - Jahoda presented these as ideal, and they are, but how many need to be lacking to be considered abnormal? This criteria is difficult to measure and hard to assess i.e mastery of someone’s env
- interesting concept but not useful in identifying abnormalities

Q6. Rob is a sixth form student who has started hearing voices in his head. The voices come often, are usually threatening and make Rob feel frightened. The voices are making it difficult for Rob to complete his homework properly and he is worried about how this may affect his chances of going to university. Rob has not told anyone about his experiences, but his parents and teachers have noticed that he appears distracted, anxious and untidy.
Outline and evaluate FFA and deviation from IMH as definitions of abnormality (16)

AO1>
FFA states abnormal behaviour is when an individual isn’t able to cope with everyday life. This prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviours society would expect from them e.g getting out of bed / holding down a job (Defined by Rosenhan and Seligman into 7 sections) and GAF is a way of measuring how well individuals function in everyday life considering Rosenhan’s 7 sections + occupational functioning

Deviation from IMH is a humanistic definition by Jahoda in 1958. Rather than defining abnormality, it defines features of IMH and deviation from these suggests abnormality. This judges mental health in the same way as physical health - a person should meet certain criteria to be considered mentally + physically healthy e.g normal BP

The 6 features are RAPSAP. Resistance to stress (being able to cope) / Adapting to env (adjusting to situations) / Personal autonomy (being able to function independently) / Self-actualisation (should develop strengths and trying to reach full potential) / Accurate perception of reality (seeing things as they are) / Positive self attitude (high self-esteem and strong sense of identity). The more criteria someone fails to meet, the more abnormal they are.

AO2>
Rob isn’t coping w tasks as he’s untidy / can’t complete hw + causing others distress (parents / teachers) + is experiencing personal distress (anxiety / being frightened)
Rob’s perception of reality isn’t accurate - hearing voices + voices prevent Rob from fulfilling potential / achieve self-actualisation e.g affecting his chances of going uni

AO3>
:] Considers how the individual feels and takes patient's perspective into account by considering the experience and perspective of the patient as it considers the role of personal distress - acknowledges experiences + recognises the people who need help

:] GAF is a scale which allows extent of FFA to be measured which means the decision of whether a behaviour is abnormal or not can be made in a relatively objective way. The behaviour is also seen as observable (can be seen by others bc they might not hold a job down) which means others can intervene if they’re incapable of helping themselves

:[ Not all abnormal behaviour is associated with distress / failure to function
e.g psychopaths would be considered abnormal due to their lack of empathy, but many tend to function very well and hold positions of authority in society who show no personal distress. This shows people can still function normally even with a mental disorder

:[ Cultural bias - someone who’s functioning adequately is diff across all cultures e.g lower class / non-white ppl are more frequently diagnosed as their lifestyles may differ from the dominant western culture (may lead to judgement)

:] Subjective - who decides what’s an adequate function? Some people have diff. ideas to what FFA is. Although there are objective assessments, it is still up to that person to decide what is normal and not (relies on individual judgement)

:] Holistic (considers multiple factors and suggestions for personal development) which allows for clear goals to be set / focused on to achieve IMH

:] Positive approach (focuses on pos. not neg.)
Offers alt perspectives on mental disorders that focuses on ideal rather than unideal. Jahoda's ideas were never taken up by med profs, it has had some influence with the 'pos. psych movement'. The strength lies in its pos. outlook and influence on humanistic approaches

:[ Cultural Relativism - Criteria are culture-bound
Goal of self-actualisation is relevant to individualist cultures, not collectivist (needs of the group, not one person). If we apply this criteria to collectivist cultures, we would see higher incidences of abnormality thus limiting usefulness of this definition to certain cultural groups. Therefore lacks generalisability

:[ Applies principles of physical health to mental health
Physical illnesses tend to have physical causes e.g infection so easy to detect and diagnose. While it’s possible some mental disorders have physical causes (drug abuse) they’re usually consequences of life experiences. Thus, unlikely we can diagnose mental abnormalities in the same way as we diagnose physical ones

:[ Unrealistic Criteria - Jahoda presented these as ideal, and they are, but how many need to be lacking to be considered abnormal? This criteria is difficult to measure and hard to assess i.e mastery of someone’s env
- interesting concept but not useful in identifying abnormalities

Q1. Explain how findings of psychological research into the treatment of depression could have implications for the economy (2)

:] MetaMay lead to improvements in treatment programmes, meaning ppl manage their health better and take less time off work. This would reduce costs to the economy

:] ‘Cutting-edge’ scientific research findings into treatments for MH issues may encourage investment from overseas companies, boosting economy

:[ Providing effective treatments might be significant financial burden to NHS service alr under huge financial strain

:[ Discovering new treatments may be more effective, means more expenses and financial burden to economy

Q2. Briefly describe one study in which treatment for unipolar depression or bipolar depression was investigated (3)

Robinson et al (1990) - Meta-analysis of different therapies for depression found CBT wasn’t significantly more effective over a placebo cond. at reducing depression symptoms. Suggesting it isn’t v effective bc a placebo can reduce depression symptoms just as well as CBT

March et al (2007) - CBT was as effective as antidepressants
Researchers examined 327 adolescents w a diagnosis of depression and looked at effectiveness of CBT, antidepressants and a combo of both
After 36 weeks, 81% of antidepressant and CBT group had significantly improved but 86% of combo of both, suggesting combo of both is more effective

Q4. Discuss the cognitive approach to treating depression (16)

AO1>
Depression is due to irrational thoughts from maladaptive internal mental processes. CBT is one way to treat depression, starts w an assessment where patient and therapist identify patient’s problems and where there might be negative and irrational thoughts that’d benefit from being challenged.
CBT then aims to change negative schemas to alleviate depression by replacing these irrational thoughts w more effective behaviours / attitudes
CBT uses both Ellis and Beck’s theories to understand why ppl might be depressed

Beck uses negative triad to help patient identify negative thoughts in relation to themselves, the world and the future. Patient and therapist then work together to challenge these thoughts by discussing evidence for & against them. Patient will be set hw to test their thoughts and the validity of them, then reinforcement of positive thoughts & cognitive restructuring

Ellis developed Rational emotive behavioural therapy expanding the ABC model to ABCDE model. The D stands for Dispute and E stands for effect. There are diff types of disputes used (logical / empirical). Logical is when the therapist qs the logic of a person’s thoughts e.g ‘does the way u think abt that situation make any sense?’. Empirical is when the therapist seeks evidence for the person’s thoughts e.g ‘where’s evidence ur beliefs are true?’. Following a session, the patient may be set hw. For eample, someone who’s anxious in social situations may be set hw to meet a friend for a drink so they can identify their own irrational beliefs and prove them wrong. As a result, their beliefs begin to change.

AO3>
:] P: CBT doesn’t have side effects, drugs can
E: e.g affecting the heart and have even been linked to suicide.
E: Some drug therapies require patients to avoid certain foods (cheese / wine) which can have adverse reactions but by using CBT, there’s no risks involved.
L: Thus, for patients suffering from health conditions or those unable to make such lifestyle changes, CBT may be more appropriate and effective

:] P: Cog exp. has led to irl treatments
E: Advocates of CBT says it empowers patients and gives a sense of personal efficacy, enabling them to take control of their lives and make positive changes. In contrast, psychoactive drugs often require a passive role where patients are reliable on biological intervention which primarily manage symptoms w/o addressing underlying causes of depression, potentially leading to higher relapse rates once stopped.
E: CBT teaches coping mechanisms and thought patterns to directly tackle the root of depressive issues, resulting in more lasting improvements and reduced relapse risk. By challenging thoughts and reducing symptoms, it can be assumed those thoughts are responsible for depression
L: However, this is a treatment fallacy + just because it works as a treatment doesn't mean the exp. is correct

:[ P: Success may depend more on the quality of the patient-therapist relationship (rapport) + requires motivation
E: Whereas alt treatments (antidepressants) don’t require the same lvl of motivation and may be more effective.
E: This idea is reflected in evidence provided by March et al where a combo of CBT and antidepressants was the most effective combo as those w severe depression may not be able to attend the regular CBT sessions due to a lack of motivation / inability to get out of bed in the morning and may also feel beyond help.
L: This means CBT can’t be used to address all cases and isn’t suitable for patients who need help the most (can’t be used as the primary treatment for severely depressed patients)

:[ P: Overemphasis on role of cognitions
E: CBT suggests person’s irrational thinking is the primary cause of their depression and doesn’t consider other factors (domestic abuse).
E+L: This would mean they’d have to change their circumstances, thus CBT would be ineffective in treating these patients until their circumstances have changed

:[ P: Correlational and unclear of exact origins of faulty thinking
E: Faulty thinking may be the effect of the disorder rather than the cause
E: Difficult to establish cause and effect - faulty thinking could be an effect or result of depression, not the cause
L: However, Clark and Beck doesn't have this issue - they concluded that there was solid support for all of the cog. vulnerability factors e.g negative self schemas : they can be found before depression develops. this study is a better exp. in support to the cog. app. to explaining depression.

:[ P: Places blame on patient
E: Caused by person's thoughts and faulty thinking - doesn't focus on situational factors. can lead to neg. thoughts if overlooked.
E: Should need to change the situation e.g abusive relationship rather than the thinking
L: BUT by focusing on the thinking pattern, it empowers the individual which could reduce symptoms and make a change for the better.

Q1. Outline one behavioural and one cognitive characteristic of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (4)

Behavioural - Compulsions - behaviour performed repeatedly to alleviate anxiety

Cognitive - Obsessions - unwanted / intrusive thoughts or imgs that cause distress

Q2. Outline characteristics of either phobic disorders or obsessive compulsive disorder (4)

Experiencing emotional characteristics e.g feelings of anxiety (uncomfortably high and persistent state of arousal) and fear (intense emotional sensation of extreme and unpleasant alertness - only subsides when phobic object is removed)

Experiencing behavioural characteristics e.g avoidance (physically adapting normal ehaviour to avoid phobic objects) and FFA (difficulty taking part in normal day-to-day activities)

Q3. Outline characteristics of depression (4)

Behavioural characteristics such as avolition which involves a lack of motivation and interest. Characterised by indifference to world and oneself, including physical health
Other behavioural characteristics such as a change in eating patterns (significant weight gain / loss) + aggression (to others / sh)

Emotional characteristics such as sadness (persistent, low mood) + guilt (helplessness and feeling useless compared to other ppl)

Cognitive characteristics such as negative schemas (automatic negative biases when thinking abt themselves, the world and the future)
Poor concentration (not giving full attention to tasks)

Q4. Bob always checks that doors are locked and plug sockets are switched off. His checking routine has become very time consuming. He now feels overwhelmed with fears that his family could be in danger if he does not complete his checking routine. His doctor thinks Bob has obsessive compulsive disorder. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘obsessions’ and ‘compulsions’ (4)

‘Obsessions’ - intrusive / unwanted thoughts (overwhelmed by fear his family will be in danger due to him)

‘Compulsions’ - repetitive behaviours (checking doors are locked / plug sockets switched off before leaving the house)

Q4. Bob always checks that doors are locked and plug sockets are switched off. His checking routine has become very time consuming. He now feels overwhelmed with fears that his family could be in danger if he does not complete his checking routine. His doctor thinks Bob has obsessive compulsive disorder. (b) Bob’s doctor is sending him for a brain scan and is looking into his family history. How might the biological approach be used to explain Bob’s obsessive-compulsive disorder? (4)

Brain scan - Basal ganglia and other circuits have been implicated, suggesting disturbed communication in these structures might account for the repetitive behaviours seen in Bob’s OCD + OCD linked to abnormality / excessive activity in orbital frontal cortex / thalamus & parahippocampal gyrus (related to regulation of unpleasant emotions)

Low levels of neurotransmitters e.g serotonin - removed too quickly before impulses pass

Family history - Focus on the search for gene markers Bob might have inherited (COMT, SERT gene)

Q6. (a) Identify 2 symptoms of OCD (2)

Obsessions - Intrusive / wanted thoughts
Compulsions - repetitive behaviours / ritual acts that reduce anxiety

Q1. Outline the use of one or more drugs in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (4)

Attempt to increase / decrease lvls of neurotransmitters or activity of them in brain
To decrease anxiety, lower arousal, lower BP / HR
Antidepressants - SSRIs prevent reuptake of serotonin and prolong its activity in the synapse to reduce anxiety
Tricyclics - block transporter mechanism that re-absorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline, prolonging their activity
Anti-anxiety drugs - enhance activity of GABA, slowing down CNS causing relaxation
SNRIs - more recent drugs which increase lvls of serotonin and nor-adrenaline, tolerated by those for whom SSRIs aren’t effective

Q5. Discuss biological explanations of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Refer to evidence in your answer (16)

AO1>
Genetic exp - Bio exp. of OCD argues OCD can be genetically explained by inheriting from parents. For example, Lewis et al. found that of his OCD patients, 37% had parents w OCD and 21% had siblings w OCD. Genes will not defo make u have it but will make u more vulnerable (genetic vulnerability). Researchers have identified ‘candidate genes’ that make u more vulnerable to OCD. All genes come in diff forms (alleles). OCD is polygenic (not caused by 1 gene) but several genes are involved. 1 study found that up to 230 diff. genes may be involved in OCD.

COMT gene regulates production of dopamine (neurotransmitter). OCD patients are more likely to have an allele of the COMT gene that produces lower activity of the COMT and higher lvls of dopamine.

SERT gene affects reuptake in serotonin system. A mutation of the SERT gene linked to OCD leads to fewer lvls of serotonin.

Neural exp - Focuses on the nervous system (brain structure and NTs)
Dopamine lvls are abnormally high in OCD sufferers (high lvls of dopamine have specifically been linked to compulsions)
Serotonin lvls are abnormally low in OCD sufferers (supported by the fact antidepressants which increase serotonin have been shown to reduce symptoms)

‘Worry circuit’ = set of brain structures (OFC - Rational decision making) - basal ganglia system (Caudate nucleus & hypothalamus). Overactive in ppl w OCD. Signal sent to thalamus abt things that r worrying e.g potential germ hazard - Thalamus acts upon it. But in OCD, too many msgs r sent back to the OFC, creating a ‘worry circuit’. Caudate nucleus usually suppresses OFC signals but fails to if dmged which results in decision making in circuits in the brain (lateral frontal lobes esp) being impaired.

Abnormalities in basal ganglia have been linked to OCD - hyperactivity has been linked to repetitive motor movements which may explain compulsion i.e repetitive behaviours and supports people with head injuries - some have dmged basal ganglia + show increased rates of OCD

AO3>
:) P: Research Support for neural exp.
E: Hu (2006) compared serotonin activity in 169 OCD sufferers and 253 non-sufferers, finding serotonin levels to be lower in OCD patients therefore serotonin is implicated in OCD
E: However, this research is correlational, thus causation can’t be established (i.e OCD causing low serotonin levels rather than the other way round)
L: Further support for the neural exp. comes from drug treatments for OCD → SSRI's have been found to be useful in successfully treating OCD.
CA: Treatment fallacy to conclude that a treatment working means the exp. is correct. SSRI's may be effective but does not necessarily mean the bio exp. is correct.

:) P: Research Support for role of genes
E: Nestadt et al (2000) identified 80 patients with OCD and 343 of their 1st degree relatives and compared them w control patients w/o OCD and 1st degree relatives
E: Found that people w 1st degree relatives with OCD had a 5x greater risk of having OCD themselves compared to general pop.
L: Suggests genetic factors play a role in OCD although, this is a family study therefore the role of env factors can’t be ruled out

:) P: Further research to support role of genes from twins
E: Nestadt (2010) reviewed twin studies and found 68% of MZ twins shared OCD compared to 31% DZ twins. higher concordance rate support MZ and role of genes in OCD but they aren’t 100% which shows that env factors play a role too.
E: Importance of the interaction b/w genes and env can be explained by the 'diathesis stress model' - a person may inherit a genetic vulnerability to a disorder to occur but there also must be a trigger.
L: The idea that genes alone are not sufficient to explain OCD is supported by Cromer et al (2007) where they found over half of OCD patients had a traumatic event and OCD was more severe in those with 1 or more traumas. suggests genetic factors alone are insufficient to explain OCD and env factors need to be considered in order to gain a complete exp. of OCD (interactionist approach should be taken)

Q1. Briefly outline how flooding might be used to treat a phobia (2)

Immediate / full exposure to phobic object
Prevention of avoidance and doesn’t end until they are calm / fear is extinguished / anxiety receded

Q2. (a) Outline a behavioural explanation of phobias (2)
(b) Briefly discuss one limitation of the behavioural explanation of phobias that you have outlined in your answer to part (a). (3)

(a) Phobias are learnt through classical conditioning (fear acquired when neutral stimulus becomes associated w a frightening event) and maintained through operant conditioning (person avoids phobic stimulus and gains a reward for doing so). This maintains the phobia as the feared association is never ‘unlearned’ and is known as the two-process model

(b) Not all phobias are triggered by a traumatic experience where initial association (b/w phobic object / situation and fear) is formed which suggests alt explanations are needed

Q3. Explain one weakness of systematic de-sensitisation (2)

Relies on the client’s ability to be able to imagine the fearful situation but some ppl can’t create a vivid image, thus it wouldn’t be effective

Might be effective in therapeutic situation but not in the real world

Q4. Tommy is 6 and has a phobia about birds. His mother is worried because he now refuses to go outside. She says, ‘Tommy used to love playing in the garden and going to the park to play football with his friends, but he is spending more and more time watching TV and on the computer’.
(a) A psychologist has suggested treating Tommy’s fear of birds using systematic desensitisation. Explain how this could be used (4)
(b) Why might systematic desensitisation be more ethical than flooding (2)

(a) Tommy would be taught relaxation techniques he could use when encountering birds (breathing exercises) and progress through anxiety hierarchy from least feared presentation to most e.g small pic of sparrow, then small bird through window (stepped approach used w client relaxing at each stage)
Gradual exposure leads to extinction of fear association w new association w relaxation formed

(b) SD is gradual so anxiety produced is limited whereas in flooding the most feared situation is presented immediately which would be too traumatic for a small child
+ Tommy may not fully understand consent to flooding would mean immediate exposure to most feared situation so his consent to SD increases his protection from harm

Q5. Kirby is in her 20s and has had a phobia of balloons since one burst near her face when she was a little girl. Loud noises such as ‘banging’ and ‘popping’ cause Kirby extreme anxiety, and she avoids situations such as birthday parties and weddings, where there might be balloons
Suggest how the behavioural approach might be used to explain Kirby’s phobia of balloons (4)

Kirby’s phobia has developed through classical conditioning, forming an association b/w neutral stimulus (balloon) and response of fear
Conditioned response triggered every time she sees a balloon / hears similar noises
Her phobia has generalised to situations where balloons might be present (parties and weddings) and to similar noises ‘banging’ and ‘popping’
Her phobia is maintained through operant conditioning - the relief she feels when avoiding balloons becomes reinforcing

Q6. Hamish has a phobia of heights. This phobia has now become so bad that he has difficulty in going to his office on the third floor, and he cannot even sit on the top deck of a bus any more. He has decided to try systematic de–sensitisation to help him with his problem.
Explain how the therapist might use systematic de-sensitisation (6)

Firstly, Hamish would be taught relaxation techniques (breathing exercises). Then, therapist and client construct an anxiety hierarchy, starting w situations that cause a small amount of fear. In Hamish’s case, this might be standing on a small st epladder - then listning situations that cause more fear, w most frightening being at the top of the hierachy (standing on top of a mountain)
Finally, they work through this list w client remaining relaxed at each stage
2 main features = relaxation & working through anxiety hierarchy

Q7. ‘Behaviourists believe that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through processes such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.’
Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (16)

AO1>
The 2 process model was developed by Mowrer (1960) and states phobias are learnt through classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

CC is when fear is acquired when neutral stimulus becomes associated w a frightening event. Ppl then gain anxiety around the NS after association and results in 1 trial learning (trauma occurs from association to happen). Generalisation can occur e.g wasps or insects in general and can be linked to the Little Albert case study where his fear, initially conditioned towards a white rat generalised to other furry, white objects.

OC is when the person avoids phobic stimulus and gains a reward for doing so. This reinforces the behaviour which increases the frequency of it. Negative reinforcement = avoiding situation that’s unpleasant (relief acts as a primary reinforcer / reward). Reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour so phobia is maintained.

AO3>
:) P: Can explain a lot of phobias
E: Lots of people w phobias can recall a specific incident when their phobia formed (face validity) e.g bitten by a dog
E: Explains how phobias are maintained through operant conditioning; if someone is prevented from avoiding their phobia, the phobia declines
L: supports OC so it plays a role in maintaining phobias

:) P: Real life app - therapies
E: Useful for developing therapies as it explains that in order to overcome the fear, the person must be exposed to the phobic stimulus
E+L: Has led to successful therapies for phobias (strengthening exp.)

:) Supported by research - sue et al found some ppl are able to recall a specific event that has led to their phobia developing. By being able to explain a phobia in terms of a specific event, it shows how CC is involved in development of phobias as triggering event has led to associations being formed that wouldn’t have otherwise become connected and even if someone can’t recall a specific incident, it’s likely it was forgotten / repressed

:( P: Not everyone who experiences trauma will go on to develop a phobia
E: Research has found that not everyone who was bitten by dogs developed a phobia of them
E: Explained by the diathesis-stress model (a model to explain how diff. factors interact) which proposes that you need to inherit a genetic vulnerability for the disorder and have it triggered by a life event in order for a phobia to develop
E: DiNardo et al (1988) reported that 56% of dog phobics had an unpleasant encounter and 50% of normal controls also had an experience but didn’t develop phobia
L: Shows the behavioural approach to phobias is a limited exp. to show they are developed and more research is needed for full exp.

:( P+E: Evolution means behaviourists can't explain why people develop phobias of spiders but not cars (which cause people more injuries than spiders)
E: Argues humans are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association b/w past life-threatening stimuli e.g snakes (would've helped survival in evolutionary past if we quickly learn a fear for them)
L: Reinforced by evidence such as 'biological preparedness' explaining why we are less likely to develop a phobia of modern dangers like cars compared to spiders (Seligman 1971)

:( P: Ignores cognitive factors
E: Argues phobias develop as a consequence of irrational thinking and this approach ignores this role e.g someone w phobia of lifts may think they’ll die if they get trapped - causes anxiety and may trigger this phobia
E: Ignores cognitive factors so can’t account for individual variation - not all phobics had a bad experience, and ones that did didn't develop one due to patient's perception and interpretation
L: Limited exp. as cognitive factors are important rather than behavioural, so it would be more beneficial to merge the two concepts for a fuller exp.