Social Psych Exam 2

The Self

Symbol-using social being who can reflect on own behavior

• Social being: not isolated; self = social

  • other ppl are relevant to how we see ourselves, how we feel about ourselves, & how we define ourselves

• Symbol-using & self-reflexive: essential for planned, coordinated behavior

  • stop & consider own behavior, where you stand relative to goals, being able to change course when necessary

  • pretty important when it comes to goal pursuit & getting what you want

Two Aspects of Self

1. Self as knower (I, the subject)

   • Active perceiver, initiator, & regulator of action

   • Thing/entity/agent; sees, perceives, coordinates, plans, thing in driver seat

2. Self as known (ME, the object)

   • Knowledge one has of oneself (what one knows about themselves, knowledge about who they are)

     • Self-concept: how we think of ourselves; knowledge we have of ourselves

     • Self-esteem: how we feel about ourselves

Self as Known & Self as Knower

I see Jessica

• Self is performing the action; self is subject of sentence; thing doing the seeing

I see Me

• Self performing the action and is object of that action

• Thing doing the seeing but also that thing being seen, double duty; recognizing itself as an object of potential

People can see the self as an object of attention

• Important psychology happens, changes in interesting, important, in predicable ways

Capacity for Self Awareness

Mirror Test

Humans:

• can do things that tell us they recognize themselves as an object of attention (at certain ages) (infant doesn’t recognize) (mirror test, infants can’t pass) (until about age of 18-19 months; pass mirror test) (indication of self awareness)

Chimps:

• can pass mirror test, suggesting have self awareness

Dolphins:

• can pass versions of mirror test, some evidence they’re self aware

Peguins:

• can’t pass mirror test, but some birds (afr gray parrots) have a low level of self awareness

Cats:

• can’t pass mirror test

Self Awareness Theory

Attention focused inward (toward self) or outward(toward environment) (at any given moment of day)

• Most of time attention is outward toward environment, things happen in environment

  • Things can take attention & draw it inward

When focused inward on ourselves, compare current behavior against internal standards & values

• When drawn inward, experience negative affect, don’t like it, there’s some sort of problem

This is aversive

• Almost always failing to meet standard

• Unpleasant, don’t like it bc according to theory when we become self aware, we recognize there are standards or values relevant to that context we aren’t meeting

• Gap or discrepancy between where we are & where we want to be/where we think we ought to be

  • Should be some capacity, some push, or some or of change

  • Emotions are signals of whats going on in environment, something negative = signal to change something

Responding to Discrepancies

What can we do?

1. Change self to meet standards (change behavior)

2. Escape/avoid self-awareness (stop being self aware, stop looking at reflection, stop listening to voice; otherwise find some way to escape self awareness)

   • Alcohol:

     • Theories suggest ppl abuse alcohol as a means to escape the unpleasant consequences of being self aware

     • Blunts self awareness

   • Masochism:

     • Reduce unpleasant consequences of being self aware; hard to reflect on failing to meet standards if constantly receiving pain; something that’s competing for attention

   • Mediation/Spirituality:

     • Reducing self awareness; consistently mull over failure or you could concentrate on heart beat/nonsense syllables

   • Suicide (final means of escape):

     • Other forms of reducing/eliminating seem to fail, an answer to some ppl is to end their lives as a means of escaping the consequences of self awareness

Introspection

Looking inward (is this where self knowledge comes from?)

Kind of like self-awareness in a sense

Have very good info about self in terms of choices made, what like to do vs don’t like, etc

Have info relevant to preferences: decisions made, choices made, outcomes from preferences

Often know the outcome, but rarely the process

• know outcomes but don’t have access to psychological states that made you make certain choices, choose certain preferences, & lead to certain outcomes

Limits of Introspection

At best gonna come up with subset of right reasons, at worse gonna be way off mark

But doesn’t keep us from generating reasons if asked

• These aren’t always the reasons

• We convince ourselves that they are

• & this has consequences!

• Whatever reasons we generate on the fly, in the moment,are gonna effect our decisions, decisions we would have not made if had not introspected; made worse decisions

Thinking about reasons leads to:

• Less optimal choices

• Less Satisfaction w/choices

What Introspection Does

When thinking about reasons, bring to mind attitudes that are accessible, plausible, & easy to verbalize

Don’t have perfect access; these reasons are unrepresentative!

Often imply diff reasons that we adopt…but “real” reasons eventually come back!

Can lead you astray, bc you have access to outcomes; you probably don’t have great access to psych processes that lead to outcomes, preferences, decisions

Self Knowledge: Observing Our Behavior

Infer self-knowledge by observing our behavior in context in which it occurs

• Figure out what we like, preferences, desires, what we do = think about, observe, our behavior in the context which it occurs

• based on behavior, drawing inferences about what you like, what you want, what you need

Self-perception theory

• Especially likely in circumstances where it’s a little uncertain to you what your preferences are, what your wants & needs might be

• Under those circumstances if think about behavior in past, can make reasonable inferences about desires, goals, wants

• Observe like how would observe others

• Inferential strategy, inferences from observations about what we’ve done in past

Especially likely when our attitudes & feelings uncertain/ambiguous

Doesn’t require access to internal states!

• Getting around introspection to figure out what our interests and preferences might be

Over Justification Effect

Limit of observing self

When intrinsic motivation diminishes for activities associated w/extrinsic motivation (e.g. rewards)

• Situation when have intrinsic motivation to do something, extrinsic motivation placed on top of intrinsic, there by diminishing initial intrinsic motivation

Tendency for ppl to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

Intrinsic Motivation

Factors inside person (wanting to do smth bc you want to do something; motive is reason, & end in an of itself)

Desire to engage in an activity bc we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

Extrinsic Motivation

Factors outside person; means to an end

Desire to engage in an activity bc of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

Self Knowledge: Comparing to Others

Learn about self by comparing self w/others

• Social comparison theory

  • Ppl have a need to figure out where we stand, consistently one way or another, trying to make sure got requisite skills and right opinions, want to make sure abilities are strong & opinions are correct

  • To figure out look around

• Drive to evaluate opinions & abilities accurately

• Lacking objective standards, evaluate self through comparison w/others

  • Turn to other ppl; sizing yourself up relative to other ppl to get info that could be leveraged such that you can determine if abilities strong & opinions are correct

• Prefer to compare to similar others

  • Intentionally find ppl who would be diagnostic in terms of this judgment, ppl who are like us/similar in relevant ways such that the comparison would matter

Social Comparison Extensions and Revisions

We now know that..

• Occurs for many dimensions – not just abilities & opinions

• Can be spontaneous (w/out prompt, w/out effort)

• Occurs for reasons besides accuracy

  • Downward social comparison

  • Upward social comparison

Downward Social Comparison

Feel better when someone’s doing worse than you

• Feel better when talk bad about other ppl; taking pleasure in watching roommate gain freshman 15

Might be motivated to find comparison targets who are worse off to feel better about self

Comparing ourselves to ppl who are worse than we are w/regard to a particular trait or ability

Upward Social Comparison

There will be times when want to find comparison targets who are better off bc can be inspiring can motivate us to try harder & do better

• Feel worse about self when in yoga & person next to them is more flexible

Comparing ourselves to ppl who are better than we are w/regard to a particular trait or ability

Self Esteem

3 things aren’t the same thing, don’t really go together but researchers refer to all 3 as this

1. How we generally feel about ourselves? (global/state self esteem)

   • Rosenburg self esteem scale

2. The way we evaluate various abilities (Self-evaluation) (in particular situations)

3. Momentary emotional states that arise from pos/neg outcomes? (Feelings of self-worth)

   • Fluctuates, how feel about self moment to moment

Ppl who are incarcerated have really high amounts of this, off the charts; not always that obvious what it does for us

Regardless of whether there are tangible benefits of it ppl still want it

Global Self Esteem

Why Do We Have Self Esteem?

ppl seem motivated to get and to hold onto it

1. Tells us we’re “fitting in” (inclusionary status, extend to which included w/other ppl)

   • Sociometer hypothesis

2. Helps us manage existential terror

   • Humans are unique in capacity to contemplate their non-existence; when thinking about own death self esteem takes a hit

   • Self esteem = buffer that prevents the unpleasant experiences we would have in contemplating our own mortality

   • Terror management theory

Sociometer Hypothesis

Self esteem is like a gauge that tells us extent to which we’re fitting in w/other ppl

Surviving, thriving depends a lot on other ppl; increases success; seems important to have some way of figuring out whether those around you like you

Low when reject, excluded, high when feel like fitting in, ppl like and include us

Don’t care about esteem, care about what it tells us, inclusionary status

Terror Management Theory

Want to do things that will provide meaning, give us a sense of purpose; give us self esteem; keeping anxiety at bay

Under conditions where see things die, their judgements & behavior seem to change; when all that is threatened ppl will become defensive

When thinking about mortality, think your group is better than other groups, your religion is better, punish ppl who break norms

Keeping Self Esteem

Self evaluation maintenance model

Assumes that : (2 intial postualtes)

1. Ppl want to maintain or increase their self-evaluation (ppl care about self esteem)

2. Relationships w/others have substantial impact on self-evaluation (other ppl are relevant to us & our pursuit of self esteem

Self Evaluation Maintenance

Composed of 2, dynamic processes

1. Reflection

   • Lots of times when we seem to feel pretty good about our close connections to high status, high powered or successful other ppl

   • Reflect on loose association w/powerful others in a way that makes us look good or feel good

   • Basking in reflective glory (BIRGing)

2. Comparison

   • Sometimes don’t reflect on connection w/other ppl but we directly compare ourselves to other ppl

   • Turning on same variables, closeness & performance, but w/opposite psychological effects

   • Close to high performing and feels good sometimes close & feels bad

Use same 2 variables but w/opposite effects on self-evaluation

When performance & closeness are high, can be good or bad

Which is it, & why?

• Depends on a 3^rd variable – relevance  (whether you reflect or compare to higher performing others in a way your self esteem might get a boost or take a hit)

  • Domains revelant to self-definition

Self Evaluation Maintenance and Relevance

If another’s performance is highly relevant, comparison process important & self-evaluation suffers

• in domain that’s important, gonna compare self to others w/self esteem taking hit

If another’s performance isn’t relevant, reflection process important & can enhance self-evaluation by BIRGing

• Domain low in relevance, good to associate, reflect on connection & bask in reflective glory

Self-Enhancement Maintenance Example

Barb, Alice, & High-school Band

They’re friends (closeness high)

Music important to both (relevance high)

Barb selected (performance high) (selected for band, Alice isn’t)

• This is a problem! (close to high performing other in domain that’s important to her)

• What can be done? (to protect/hold on to self-esteem)

  • Change “closeness”

    • Alter friendships, emphasize ways diff

  • Change “relevance”

    • Alter importance of music to self definition (pursue other hobbies)

  • Change “performance”

    • Alice can practice more, work extra hard (next time she’s selected) (take a lot of effort work & time, not guarantee)

    • She can also hurt Barb’s performance

Forms of Self Enhancement

Self-serving attributions

BIRGing (basking in reflective glory)

Downward social comparison

Overly positive self-views

Illusory control (concerning environment)

Unrealistic optimism (views of future)

Overly Positive Self-Views

On avg ppl think that theyre a little better than other ppl, better in ways that’s difficult to maintain logically & statistically

• 90% of profs think their teaching is above average

Illusory Control

Give a die & money, can throw die & bet to try to earn more

Can throw on their own or someone else throws die on your behalf

Participants gamble twice as much money if they throw the die compared to someone throwing it oont her behalf

• control over environment in ways that they really don’t have

Ppl wanting to feel competent and in control and good about themselves

Unrealistic Optimism

Give surveys, likelihood find true love and marry by time 35, etc

How likely good & bad happened to you & how likely good & bad happen to other ppl

• More likely good things happen to self compared to others, & less likely for bad things happen to self than others

Positive Illusions

Most ppl maintain positive illusions about themselves

• Overly positive self views, more perceived control, more unrealistic optimism

But not everyone (group of ppl aren’t subject to these biases) (ppl who are clinically depressed)

• Don’t think better than other ppl nor worse, no false sense of control over environment, don’t think its likely good things are gonna happen to them over other ppl

• To get out of bed feel good about self & face the world, need to be a little bias, better, more control, good things come your way

• Depressive realism; related to feeling less good about yourself

Self Concept

Overall set of beliefs that ppl have about their personal attributes

• Human self-recognition develops at around 18-24 months of age

• Child’s self-concept is concrete

• As we mature, we place less emphasis on physical characteristics & more on psychological states (our thoughts & feelings) & on considerations of how other ppl judge us

• Morality is viewed as central to the self-concept, more than cognitive processes or desires

Mirror Test

Study whether animals have a self-concept, researchers placed a mirror in an animal’s cage until the mirror became familiar object

Animal was then briefly anesthetized, & an odorless red dye was painted on its brow or ear

When the animal woke up and looked in mirror

• Members of the great ape family, such as chimpanzees & orangutans, immediately touched the area of their heads marked w/the red spot, whereas lesser apes, gibbons, didn’t

How Culture Influences the Self

Many Western cultures, ppl have an independent view of the self

Many Asian and other non-Western cultures have an interdependent view of the self

• Difference between Western & Eastern sense of self is real & has interesting consequences for communication between the cultures

• Differences in sense of self = so fundamental that it’s difficult for ppl w/independent selves to appreciate what it’s like to have an interdependent self & vice versa

Independent Self Concepts

Way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, & actions & not in terms of thoughts, feelings, & actions of other ppl

Interdependent Self Concept

way of defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other ppl, recognizing that one’s behavior is often determined by thoughts, feelings, & actions of others

Four Functions of the Self

1. Self-Knowledge

   • way we understand who we are & formulate & organize this info

2. Self-Control

   • way we make plans & execute decisions

3. Impression Management

   • way we present ourselves to other ppl & get them to see us the way we want to be seen

4. Self-Esteem

   • way in which we try to maintain positive views of ourselves

How People Gain Self Knowledge

Interception

• process whereby ppl look inward & examine their own thoughts, feelings, & motives

• self-awareness theory

• causal theories

Observing our behavior

• self perception theory

• 2 factor theory of emotion

• missattribution of arousal

• over-justification effect

Self Perception Theory

When our attitudes & feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior & the situation in which it occurs

Misattribution of Arousal

Process whereby pppl make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

Fixed Mindsets

Idea that we have a set amount of an ability that can’t change

Growth Mindsets

Idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, & seeking input from others

Self Control

Ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

• Important function of the self is to be the chief executive who sets goals & makes choices about what to do in the present & in the future

Impression Management

Attempt by ppl to get others to see them as they want to be seen

• Ingratiation: using flattery or praise to make yourself likable to another person

• Self-handicapping: ppl create obstacles & excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

Misattribution of Arousal Study

Change Self to Meet Standards Studies

1st Study

Believe gonna help researcher validate an intelligence test; give an intelligence test, brief, want you to do your best, looking at students scores to validate this measure

• Got other participants, can’t stick around to watch finish test, gonna set timer on table for 5 minutes, when timer goes off please stop working, couple minutes after i’ll return

DV: how many participants cheat?

• Hidden camera, how many students keep working

• 77% of students cheat

IV: on table w/test pencil & timer is also a large mirror where participants can see reflection, nothing behind in; in other condition no mirror

• In condition w/mirror cheating drops to 7%

  • Change behavior, move toward standard, to reduce aversive feeling of being self aware

2nd Study

Only men, come to lab, told gonna help researcher by participating in study considering appreciation of beauty

Tells men gonna be shown pics of women & for each pic indicate how attractive person is & how much enjoy looking at them

Experimenter places copy of playboy

• DV: extent to which participants are gonna live up to expressed values

  • All men were selected bc earlier in semester completed questionnaire that asked about opinions toward porn

  • Have men who love it, some middle of road, some not for me

  • Would expect opinions & how much enjoy should be pos  correlation (move in same direction); magnitude/strength of correlation should be strong; strong pos correlation: .5

• Find that correlation is somewhere around negative .5 (relationship in opposite direction

• IV: second condition; on table is a large mirror; 1^st no mirror

  • 2^nd condition, can see self & are self aware

    • Correlation becomes positive, significant, becomes strong, about .6

    • Self awareness theory; recognize standards in relevant context, change behavior to meet standard; when people are self aware we find attitude behavior consistency

Suicide Archival Research Study

Find a few ppl who seem to based on public record really struggle w/being famous; become more famous = become more self aware & get to point of ending life

On list Kurt Cobain; he committed suicide

• Gets song lyrics, content analyzed for frequency of 1^st person pronouns & ultimately gonna look at the proportion of 1^st person pronouns relative to other pronouns through time, as they get more famous, to point of suicide

• Find significant increase in 1^st person pronouns to being unknown to just signed major record deal; to really famous

• Suggesting an increase in self awareness to point of taking own life

Introspetion Study

Researchers go to mall, set up table, nylons on table, ppl invited to look at nylons being displayed & express their preferences

• Everyone has a preference, come up w/what is favorite pair

• All are identical, no diff between them

• Doesn’t stop participants from coming up w/reasons for their preferences

  • Reasons come up w/are wrong, coming up w/some process to explain decision even though decision is wrong

  • There was reason that seemed to explain most ppls preferences & no one came up w/it

    • Majority prefer last pair of nylons; not 1 participant said ordering on table was reason why had their preference

• Know outcome of your decisions; don’t have access to psychological processes that led to outcome/decisions

  • If introspect to get self knowledge, might be looking in wrong place; mess up decision making; screw up choices you make; lead you to make crappier decisions; limits to introspection

Jam Study

When ppl introspect they make poorer choices

Experimenter explains on table in front are 4 commercially available jams

Taste each jam then ultimately rank order them in terms of your preferences

• IV: ½ randomly assigned after each jam taste, instructed to introspect, think about why like jam and list reasons for why they think they do; ½ don’t introspect

• DV: see how they rank these jams

  • Participants who introspect make crappier decisions, rankings are worse compared to those who don’t

• Consumer reports magazine w/rankings, intentionally selected absolute best, the 11^th best, the 22^nd best, & the worst jam

  • Introspected; made crappier choices, had rankings that diverged from the experts

  • Ppl who didn’t; ranking were almost perfectly aligned w/experts

    • When have to introspect; don’t have access to real reasons

    • must come up w/reasons & what gonna come up w/is reasons that are culturally normative, easy to articulate, & front of mind (produces change in preference to what it would have been otherwise)

Poster Study

Poster sale; come to lab told gonna evaluate posters; rank order in terms of preferences, as compensation can take poster when they leave

• IV: whether participants when looking at posters, are also instructed to list reason (introspect) ½ do ½ don’t

3 weeks later get phone call, poster you picked; how satisfied with choice? Where’s poster now?

• Introspect participants; were less satisfied w/choice, liked it less, less sure of where poster was, less likely to have displayed

• Prediction: among participants who listed reasons more likely to pick funny animal poster to second poster artsy print

  • Bc reasons easy to articulate compared to other poster

Over Justification Effect Study

Preschool children, 4-5 yrs old

3 parts:

• Go to local preschools, identify kids who during free time, spend at least a decent portion playing w/ magic markers (coloring drawing) (intrinsically motivated to color)

• Wait week or 2 come back; each kid individually in room, 3 conditions

  • 1/3 of kids: can do whatever you want for next hour but there are markers & if you play w/markers gonna give you a gold star; kids play w/markers, give gold star

  • 1/3 of kids: bunch of things to do, you’ve got free play have fun; no mention of markers; kids intrinsically motivated to play w/markers so play with markers; at end of time give gold star for playing w/markers, unexpected reward

  • 1/3 of kids: never told anything about markers or good player award; have hours, ofc spend time w/markers; they don’t get a gold star

• Last part, couple of weeks later, observe kids during free play to see what % of time they play w/markers

  • Expect reward: ended up play w/markers significantly less than other 2 groups

    • Effect seemed to be zapping intrinsic motivation

    • Reason why doing  is to get reward not bc really like it

  • Unexpected reward: played w/ markers most

  • None: played with markers more

Bunch of art critics, show art, rate quality of art shown

• ½ pieces of art evaluating were commissioned (if do will get paid) other ½ weren’t commissioned, made bc wanted to

  • On avg critics evaluated art that was commissioned of lower quality compared to art that wasn’t commissioned

Social Comparison Studies

1st Study:

• Occurs for many dimensions – not just abilities & opinions

Students show up 1 at a time, in room w/confederate, depending on condition, always acting in really happy or really angry way

• Wanted to know whether participants own feelings would be tied to those of the person in the room w/them

Participants are injected w/epinephrin, adrenaline, or a saline solution and see how they feel when in room w/the guy

• Find that participants compare themselves to other ppl to figure out what emotion they’re experiencing

• Look to other ppl to help make sense of the arousal they’re experiencing

2nd Study:

• Can be spontaneous (w/out prompt, w/out effort)

College students when show up believe they’re there for job interview

Randomly assign to 1 of 3 conditions:

• 1: waiting, door opens person comes out seem to be having interview, seems to be competent (mr clean) (everything perfect, well put together) have reason to think hes your competition

• 2: mr dirty; dress shabby, goofy, seems to be competition

• 3: no one comes out of door before you believe you are to go into interview

Complete info about self while waiting, self esteem scale, how feel about self rn

• Ppls esteem seems impacted by who they think competition seems to be; self esteem goes up when think competition is mr dirty; self esteem goes down when perceive coemption as mr clean

Terror Management Theory Study

Approach participants on street, done in US & Germany simultaneously

Asks quick questions “opinions on immigration/abortion, weigh in on controversial social issue

• Qs are followed by other like what % of amers agree w/you or other germans think of issue

  • False consensus effect, if world view threaten more likely to think ppl agree w/you

IV: where on street youre stopped

• 1/3: 550 ft before large cemetery

• 1/3 while standing in front of cemetery

• 1/3: 500ft after passed cemetery

  • Ppl show an increased false consensus when mortality is salient (standing in front of cemetery) compared to other 2 conditions

Reflection Study

Takes place in large classroom

Ppl at front of room could look at all of ppl and count ppl in room showing off connection to UARK

Teaching assistant looks at 3 time points

• 1: Monday morning following a Saturday where football team played & won

• 2: Monday morning following loss

• 3: Monday morning following when football team didn’t play

  • When won seems to be increase in number of students showing off, when lost decrease in number of students showing off connection

Festinger’s 1957 Theory

Ppl have an enormous capacity to rationalize

Pairs of cognitions can be relevant or irrelevant to 1 another

• any 2 thoughts

If relevant, can either be consonant or dissonant

• 2 cognitions consonant if 1 follows from other

• dissonant if obverse (opposite) of 1 follows from the other

Examples of Dissonant Cognitions

I smoke cigs (tension, one follows from opposite of other)

• I smoke cigs (tension, one follows from opposite of othe)

I voted for a Republican

• I’m a registered Democrat

I said this experiment was fun

• It was painfully boring (inconsistency)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Dissonant cognitions uncomfortable, produce psychological tension (when recognize)

• Motivation to reduce inconsistency (pressure for change, to do something about uncomfortable state)

Magnitude of dissonance depends on number & importance of cognitions consonant & dissonant w/cognitions in question

• Not all dissonance is equal

How to Reduce Dissonance?

Psychological gymnastics to rationalize behavior

1. Change behavior to bring it in line w/dissonant cognition

   • quit smoking

2. Justify behavior by adding new cognitions (to help offset tension of 2 that are in conflict)

   • Smoking keeps off weight; helps me relax

3. Justify behavior by changing 1 of dissonant cognitions (change opinion or attitude)

   • Smoking isn’t that bad for you after all

   • Often ppl justify behavior by changing 1 of dissonant cognitions

     • Behave first & attitudes are consequence of behavior

   • Bold idea: motivation to reduce unpleasant effects of inconsistency may produce attitude change

     • Justify behavior in such a way to produce an attitude

     • Change way we think, not our behavior (to be consistent w/behavior)

Justifying Attitude-Discrepant Behavior

I have my reasons!

Being paid $1 lacks sufficient external justification for having lied

• Don’t have a good reason for why you lied, a dollar isn’t much; ppl paid 20 have sufficient external justification for lying

Most convenient way to reduce dissonance: convince self task was interesting

• To rationalize behavior, to reduce psychological tension from inconsistency; change attitude to meet the behavior; justify what you did

many of our mental processes occur outside our awareness

According to the idea of “telling more than we can know,” one reason that introspection is sometimes not an accurate way to learn about oneself is that __________.

A) mental processes are not observable, and therefore do not actually exist

B) people must rely on controlled processes to effectively introspective

C) people have to be extremely self-aware to learn anything about themselves

D) many of our mental processes occur outside our awareness

The over-justification effect 

_________ explain(s) why providing young children with large rewards for reading (e.g., money, prizes) might backfire and convince them that they don’t really like reading as much as they thought at first.

A) Self-perception processes 

B) Intrinsic motivation theory

C) The over-justification effect 

D) Reasons-generated attitude change 

when your friend’s performance is strong, and in a domain that is very important to you

According to Tesser’s (1988) self-evaluation maintenance model, under what conditions will you be most likely to sabotage a close friend’s performance?

A) when your friend’s performance is weak, and in a domain that is very important to you

B) when your friend’s performance is weak, and in a domain that is not very important to you  

C) when your friend’s performance is strong, and in a domain that is not very important to you

D) when your friend’s performance is strong, and in a domain that is very important to you

Western; non-Western

The development of our sense of self is partly influenced by our culture. People who tend to have an independent view of the self are likely from __________ cultures, whereas __________ cultures are more likely to have an interdependent view of the self.

A) Asian; African American

B) Western; non-Western

C) non-Western; Western

D) Indian; Asian

men who faced the mirror responded in a way more consistent with their attitudes toward pornography

Recall that Gibbons (1978) asked male participants to evaluate pictures of naked women, and that half of these men did so while facing a mirror (the other half did not face a mirror). What was the important finding from this research?

A) men who faced the mirror were more embarrassed, and as a result, indicated that they enjoyed the study less

B) men who faced the mirror enhanced their own sexual attractiveness

C) men who faced the mirror responded in a way less consistent with their attitudes toward pornography

D) men who faced the mirror responded in a way more consistent with their attitudes toward pornography