UNIT 2 PSYCH

Transduction

conversation of physical energy into neural (electrical) signals to the brain

Ventral

“what” object identity”

Dorsal

“where/how” (location and movement)

Top-down processing

Using prior knowledge

Bottom-up processing

taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it

Schema

mental structure used to organize information based on experience

Absolute threhold

minimums stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after constant stimulation

• not noticing the smell of your perfume after a while

closure

likely to fill in gaps to perceive a whole

Common fate

likely to perceive elements moving together a group

The eye

Cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, fovea

Rods

night vision, black and white, detail

Cones

day vision, color, detail

Fovea

composed of only cones

role of parvo cells

processes color and detaiol

role of magno cellws

processes motion and depth

Dark adaptatoin

Rods and cones adapt to changes in light

Different parts of the retina

photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells

How do center-on and center-off cells react differently to light

center-on cells become excited and fire more

center-off cells are inhibited until lights hits the surrounds

Retinotopic organization

The spatial organization of retinal image in maintained through the visual pathway

Trichromatic Theory

color information is identified by comparing the activation of 3 different cones

Opponent-process theory

cells increase their activation when receiving information from one kind of cone and decreasing in activation when they see a second color

What effect does acetylcholine have on the brain

enhances focus by increasing sensitivity to external stimuli, aids in encoding new information, and helps consolidate memories

Perceptual set

expectation influence perception

Active Attention

attention is directed by goals and top-down processing (focus)

• Searching a cluttered table for your keys

Passive Attention

information from the external environment requires a response

• hearing aloud noise in a quiet room direct your attention for a moment

Selective Attention

attending to one source of information while simultaneously ignoring other stimuli

• a driver concentrates on the road, traffic, and signs while ignoring distractions like billboards, passengers, or music

Simulus Salience

bottom-up qualities of a scene that influence how we direct attention

• the way a loud noise or a bright color instantly grabs your attention

Automaticity (effortless)

fast, effortless processing

• typing, walking

How does context influence perception?

the same stimulus can be perceive differently depending on the situation or background

Examples of where culture may influence perception?

facial expression: some cultures emphasize reading emotion from the eyes, others from the mouth

social expression: cultural norms influence how we interpret gestures, personal space, and tone

visual illusion: people from western cultures are more fooled by the mueller lyer illusion, while those in non-western rounder built environment are less effected

Subconscious processing

we are aware of information in our environment , but not how it is influencing our behavior

• when tired, distracted, or emotional

Subliminal processing

information we cannot consciously detect, even if we were looking for it

Stimulus capture

attention grabbed automatically

Inattentional blindness

missing information if attention is engaged elsewhere

• gorilla in basketball video

Change blindess

when unattended objects change without the viewer noticing

Cocktail party effect

being able to focus on a conversation in a loud room

Dichotic listening

different sounds are played in each ear, and you are asked to focus on only one

Insomnia

trouble falling asleep

narcolespy

needing to go to bed

2 modes of processing related to selective attnetion?

cognitive = slow, logical, attention-focused

experiential = fast, intuitive, automatic

Pavlovian (classical)

Learning through association

Operant

Learning through consequences

Extinction

the CS no longer elicits the CR

Social/Observation

Learning by watching others

Acquisition

Learning phase when NS and US are repeatedly paired

• dog learned that the bell predicts food

Spontaneous Recovery

after extinction, the CR suddenly reappears after rest

Generalization

similar stimuli produce the same response

Higher-Order Conditioning

a new NS becomes a CS by being paired with an exiting CS

Discrimination

Ability to distinguish between similar stimuli

Law of Effect

behavior followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to occur agin, while those with unpleasant outcome are less likely

Positive

adding something

Negative

removing things

Reinforcement

increase behavior

Punishment

decrease behavior

Physical punishment

can cause fear, aggression, or avoidance

Fixed interval

reward aftr a set time —> behavior increases near reward time

Fixed ration

reward after a fixed number of responses —> high, steady responding

Variable interval

reward after unpredictable time —> steady, moderate response

Variable Ratio

reward after unpredictable number of responses —> high consistent response

Operant conditioning principles

School: Praise or points for participation.

Sports: Practice reinforced by success.

Work: Bonuses for productivity.

Parenting: Time-outs or rewards for chores.

Self-Improvement: Habit-tracking and self-rewards.

How does exposure therapy work in treating phobias?

gradual exposure to a feared stimulus without negative outcome —> extinction of fear response

How does operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

classical is involuntary responses, operant is voluntary behavior

What is ‘biological preparedness’ and what is its relationship learning?

Organisms are biological predispose to learn certain associations

Learned Helplessness

when an organism learns it has no control over outcomes, it stops trying

how did Seligman test this in animals

Dogs exposed to unavoidable shocks later didn’t try to escape even when they could

Cognitive Reovlution

a shift away from behaviorism to study mental process again

Why is the mind often referred to with computer metaphors?

Similarities in how they process information; encoding, storage, and retrieval

Memory

the structures and processes involved in both the stroage and retrieval of information

Associatie network

concepts are linked together in your mind based on associations you have between them

Priming

exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus without conscious awareness

Retrieval cues

stimuli that help you access information stores in long-term memory

Memory Trace

neural representation of a stores memory and the traces between them

How does the Loftus and Palmer (1974) car accident experiment show how memory is reconstructive?

Word choice (“smashed” vs. “hit”) altered how fast people remembered cars moving → memory is reconstructive, not perfect.

What was done in the Loftus & Pickrell “lost in the mall” study?

Subjects were told false childhood events; 25% formed false memories.

What percentage of participants in the “hot air balloon” study recalled being on a hot air

balloon?

 How did this differ from the version of the study using a 45 word narrative?

~50% recalled a fake event (photo condition); fewer with only a narrative version —

shows suggestion + imagery strengthen false memory.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memories of emotional events

Encoding

how information is initially learned

Storage

retaining information over time

Retrieval

how information is initially learned

What are the components of Baddeley’s Working memory model?

What does the Phonological loop do? Holds and rehearses verbal info

What are the different levels of elaborative encoding?

What are the different levels of elaborative encoding?

Shallow: Based on appearance/sound.

Deep: Based on meaning — stronger recall

Identify some of the types of useful elaboration.

Imagery, Organization, Distinctiveness, Self-reference

Implicit Memory

Unconscious (skills, habits, priming).

Explicit Memory

Conscious (facts and events)

What is the capacity of our short-term memory?

7±2 items, lasts 15–30 sec.

Be able to describe the capacity of long-term memory, and whether our long-term

memories are processed and stored in specific locations.

Long-term is virtually limitless

What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new

information?

Rehearsal and adding complexity

Automatic Processing

unconscious

Effortful Processing

requires focus

Episodic Memory

personal expiriences/events

Semantic Memory

facts/concepts

Procedural Memory

skils

Context Dependent Memory

Recall is better int he same environment where learned

Encoding Specificity

memory retrieval improves when cues match encoding context

State Dependent Memory

Recall better when internal states match

Primacy

better recall for early items

Recency

better recall for recent items

What type of memory is more specific to the frontal lobes and hippocampus in memory processing

Explicit memory

What type of memory is more specific to the cerebellum and basal ganglia in memory processing?

Implicit memory