2.2-2.8

What do we use when we come across information?

Concepts

What does using concepts mean?

Grouping similar things together

What can you remember concepts as?

Mental categories

What do concepts help to do?

Group similar items

Example of concept:

The concept of fruit includes applies, bananas, and oranges

A mental representation of an object/concept that shows its most typical features, used as a standard for categorization:

Prototype

Example of prototype:

Apple for fruit

What are we constantly doing throughout life?

Learning and engaging in new experiences

Is it natural to change our thinking and understanding of the world around us?

Yes

Why is it natural to change our thinking and understanding of the world around us?

Because throughout life we are constantly learning and engaging in new experiences

What do we use to help with understanding all of the information that we take in everyday?

Schemas

A mental framework that helps us organize and understand information:

Schema

What do schemas let us know?

What to expect in certain situations based on past experiences

Example of schema:

Schema for school includes classrooms, teachers, desks, bells, and cafeterias

What does your brain use your schema for schools to do when you transfer schools?

Understand what to expect of the new building before you even got there

What are concepts about?

What something is

What can concepts be thought of as?

Categories or definitions

Concepts vs schemas:

What something is vs how things work or what to expect in certain situations

Do schemas change over time?

Yes

How do schemas change?

Through assimilation or accommodation

Learning something new and fitting it into your existing schema:

Assimilation

Does assimilation change a schema?

No

What does assimilation do to a schema?

Incorporates new information into the existing schema

Learning something new that doesn’t fit into an existing schema, so you change the schema to fit the new information:

Accommodation

Assimilation vs accommodation:

Not changing schema vs changing schema

What does the brain need to do other than figuring our how to categorize information or what to expect in a situation?

Problem solving

What do we utilize when encountering problems, situations, or new experiences?

Executive functions

Mental skills that help us plan, organize, and reach our goals:

Executive functions

What do executive functions allow us to do?

Think critically, make a plan, stay focused, remember important information, and solve problems

What do we use to solve problems and overcome challenges?

Algorithms, heuristics

What does a person using algorithms do?

Tackle a problem step-by-step systematically

Example of algorithms:

Trying each password that you used in the last 5 years if you forget which password you set for a certain website

Con of algorithms:

Takes more time to do

Pro of algorithms:

Works out in the end

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences:

Heuristics

Pro of heuristics:

Fast

Con of heuristics:

Doesn’t always result in the right answer

Types of heuristics:

Representativeness and availability

What does representativeness heuristic involve?

Making judgements based on how much something resembles a typical example

What can representative heuristics cause individuals to do?

Overlook important details in favor of information that aligns with their expectations or personal biases

What does availability heuristic involve?

Making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

What can availability heuristics lead to?

Errors

When can availability heuristics lead to errors?

When decisions are heavily influenced by recent or vivid memories rather than a full consideration of all of the facts

What influences what we decide to do when making decisions?

Past experiences and the way a situation is presented

Example of past experiences and the way a situation is presented influencing what we decide to do:

When we come across a familiar problem, we keep trying to solve it in the same way we did in the past

What is one reason we struggle with problem solving due to?

Mental set

The tendency to approach a problem in a way that worked in the past, even if it’s not the best solution for the current situation:

Mental set

Pro of mental set:

Can be helpful

Con of mental set:

Limits ability to find better or more efficient solutions in new situations

Similarity between mental sets and schemas:

Both are cognitive frameworks

Mental set vs schema:

For problem solving vs organizing information

The phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus:

Priming

Types of priming:

Repetition and semantic priming

When does repetition priming occur?

When you are exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later

What does semantic priming involve?

The influence of one word on the interpretation of another related word

Example of semantic priming:

If shown the word doctor, and then shown different words, you are more likely to quickly recognize and process words related to doctor, such as nurse or hospital

How information is presented and how that presentation can influence our thoughts, judgements, and decisions:

Framing

What does the idea of framing state about what causes our interpretation of information to change?

How information is worded or structured

Where is framing especially noticeable?

In the media

How are news stories framed?

By emphasizing certain details and emitting others, or using emotionally charged language

What does framing in news stories shape?

How audience perceives the issue and forms their opinions

Cognitive processes that could lead us to make bad decisions:

Gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy

The incorrect belief that the likelihood of a random event changes based on previous outcomes:

Gambler’s fallacy

Example of gambler’s fallacy:

If coin lands on head ten times in a row, you would think it more likely to land on tail next time, but it is actually still fifty-fifty chance

What does the gambler’s fallacy say about what each random roll or spin is?

Independent

What does the gambler’s fallacy say about the probability of a series of random rolls or spins?

Remains constant for each roll

Do past outcomes influence future ones in the game of chance?

No

What can gambler’s fallacy lead to?

Risky or irrational decisions

Gambler’s fallacy can lead to risky or irrational decisions in what situations?

Situations that involve probability or randomness

The tendency to continue investing in something simply because you’ve already put time, money, or effort into it, even when it’s no longer beneficial:

Sunk-cost fallacy

Example of sunk-cost fallacy:

You started a business that initially showed promise, but now it’s failing. Instead of giving up on it, your pour in even more resources just because you have already invested so much in the past 

What does the sunk-cost fallacy lead people to do?

Make decisions based on what they have already spent

What does the sunk-cost fallacy prevent people from doing?

Focusing on what’s best moving forward

What do the gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy show?

How past experiences and emotional investments can cloud rational decision making

A way of thinking that involves coming up with new and original ideas:

Creative thinking

What do creative people use?

Divergent thinking

Exploring many possible solutions to expand the range of options for solving a problem:

Divergent thinking

What does convergent thinking involve?

Narrowing down possibilities to identify single best solution

Pro of convergent thinking:

Efficient

Con of convergent thinking:

Hinders creative thinking

What hinders creativity, other than convergent thinking?

Functional fixedness

What does functional fixedness do?

Limits a person to use an object only in its traditional way

Example of functional fixedness:

Not thinking about using a heavy object to hang a poster when there is no hammer

All forms of knowing and awareness:

Cognition

Examples of cognition:

Perceiving, remembering, problem-solving

Awareness of one’s own cognitive process:

Metacognition

What is metacognition also known as?

Thinking about thinking

Altering people's behavior in a predictable way without forbidding any options

Nudge

The human tendency to approach a given problem in a set way that limits one's ability to shift to a new approach to that problem

Fixation

Immediate insight or perception:

Intuition

What is intuition contrasted with?

Conscious reasoning or reflection

The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Overconfidence

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Belief perseverence

When a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning:

Insight

Initial sensory information stored in your memory for a few milliseconds to a few seconds:

Sensory memory

What does sensory memory include?

Echoic and iconic memory

Echoic memory is for what?

Audio senses

Iconic memory is for what?

Visual senses

What happens when you pay attention to the information in sensory memory?

It goes into short-term memory

Where does sensory memory come from?

Environmental input