AP Psychology 2025 Unit 2 AP review

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory info

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on experience

Selective Attention

Focusing of conscious awareness on a specific stimulus

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Schemas

Concepts that organize and interpret unfamiliar information

Context Effects

Context alters our perception of stimuli

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one voice among many

Gestalt

An organized whole; tendency to integrate pieces into a meaningful whole

Proximity

Objects close together are perceived as a group

Closure

Brain fills in gaps to create a whole

Similarity

Similar items are grouped together

Figure-Ground

Organizing visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from background

Continuity

Perceiving smooth continuous patterns

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that require both eyes

Retinal Disparity

Binocular cue where greater disparity = closer object

Convergence

Binocular cue where eyes move inward for near objects

Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to either eye alone

Relative Size

If two objects are similar in size, smaller image is farther

Interposition

Closer objects block distant ones

Relative Clarity

Hazy objects are perceived as farther away

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance

Texture Gradient

Closer objects have more texture detail

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input

Apparent Motion

Perception of movement in stationary objects

Concept

Mental grouping of similar items

Prototype

Mental image or best example of a category

Schema

Framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schema

Accommodation

Adapting schema to include new info

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategy for problem-solving

Representative Heuristic

Judging likelihood by how well it matches a prototype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on availability in memory

Mental Set

Tendency to approach a problem in a familiar way

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations in memory

Framing

Way an issue is posed affects judgment

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects

Gambler’s Fallacy

Mistaken belief that past events influence independent future ones

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing investment in a lost cause due to prior investment

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Convergent Thinking

Narrows options to determine the best solution

Divergent Thinking

Expands possible solutions to include many options

Memory

Learning that persists over time

Implicit Memory

Retention without conscious recollection

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike)

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences

Episodic Memories

Memory of personal experiences

Semantic Memories

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Long-Term Potentiation

Increased neural firing potential after stimulation

Working Memory

Active processing of current input and long-term memory

Phonological Loop

Holds and processes verbal information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Holds and processes visual and spatial info

Multi-Store Model

Model of memory with sensory, short-term, and long-term stores

Sensory Memory

Immediate recording of sensory info

Iconic Memory

Fleeting visual memory

Echoic Memory

Fleeting auditory memory

Short-Term Memory

Holds small amounts briefly before forgetting or storing

Long-Term Memory

Permanent memory store with unlimited capacity

Encoding

Process of getting information into memory

Storage

Process of keeping information

Retrieval

Process of recalling information

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on structure or appearance

Structural Encoding

Encoding based on physical appearance

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding based on sound

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaning and connections

Semantic Encoding

Encoding that connects input with existing knowledge

Mnemonics

Memory aids using imagery or organization

Chunking

Organizing info into familiar units

Method of Loci

Memory aid using visualization of locations

Hierarchies

Organized systems that rank information

Spacing Effect

Better retention through spaced study

Massed Practice

Studying all at once (cramming)

The Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best

Sensory Memory

Limited duration memory for sensory input

Short-Term Memory

Brief memory storage for a few seconds

Long-Term Memory

Stable, durable memory system with unlimited capacity

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info to retain it

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new info to existing knowledge

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for personal life events

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall memories from early childhood

Alzheimer’s Disease

Neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss

Recognition

Identifying learned material (e.g. multiple choice)

Recall

Retrieving previously learned material (e.g. short answer)

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in same state as learning

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in same context as learning

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieval

Metacognition

Awareness of one’s thought processes

The Forgetting Curve

Memory loss over time without rehearsal

Encoding Failure

Failure to process information into memory

Proactive Interference

Old info disrupts new info learning

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts recall of old info

Tip of the Tongue

Knowing info but failing to retrieve it

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of anxiety-provoking thoughts