American Government & Politics – Essential Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards distilled from the lecture notes on American government and politics. Use them to review key terms, doctrines, institutions, and concepts likely to appear on the exam.

activism (judicial)

When judges intentionally shape judicial doctrine to fit their personal views of the Constitution and social policy.

affirmative action

Policies that expand opportunities for minorities and women, often requiring proactive steps to boost their representation.

agency loss

The gap between what principals (citizens) ideally want and what their agents (officials) actually do.

agenda control

The ability to determine which policy choices are formally considered by others.

aggregate public opinion

The sum of all individual opinions in a democracy.

ambivalence

Mixed feelings that pull an individual’s attitudes in opposite directions on an issue.

amicus curiae brief

‘Friend of the court’ brief filed by non-litigants with an interest in a case.

Antifederalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared centralized power; their efforts led to the Bill of Rights.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national charter (1777-1789) that created a weak central government.

attorney general

Head of the Justice Department and chief law-enforcement officer of the U.S.

Australian ballot

Government-printed ballot listing all candidates, filled out in private; adopted in 1888.

authority

The recognized right to make and implement decisions.

bargaining

Negotiation involving exchanges and concessions to reach collective action.

beat (journalism)

A reporter’s regular coverage area or institution.

bicameralism

Legislative structure with two chambers sharing power (e.g., House and Senate).

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments guaranteeing civil liberties and rights.

block grant

Federal money to states for broad policy areas with considerable state discretion.

blue slip

Senate tradition allowing home-state senators to give views on judicial nominees.

Brandenburg test

Standard for limiting speech that is directed to incite imminent lawless action.

Brownlow report

1937 study likening the president to a CEO and calling for professional staff expansion.

bureaucracy

Complex hierarchy of offices tasked with implementing government policies.

cabinet

Heads of major executive departments who advise the president.

casework

Legislators’ assistance to constituents in dealing with government agencies.

caucus (party)

Closed meeting of party members to choose candidates or set policy.

central clearance

OMB review of agency proposals to ensure consistency with presidential goals.

checks and balances

Constitutional powers allowing each branch to limit the others.

chief of staff system

White House chain of command that organizes staff and shields the president.

civil liberties

Constitutional protections from government interference with personal freedoms.

civil rights

Government-protected powers ensuring equal treatment and participation.

clear and present danger test

Rule allowing speech limits if it is aimed at imminent illegal action.

cloture

Senate procedure to end debate (usually filibuster) with 60 votes.

coalition

Alliance of diverse groups pursuing a common objective.

commander in chief

Constitutional title giving the president authority over the military.

commerce clause

Article I power allowing Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade.

committee & conference reports

Documents guiding agencies on congressional expectations (not legally binding).

Common Core

Nationwide K-12 standards in math and English/language arts.

concurring opinion

Separate judicial opinion agreeing with the result but not the reasoning.

conference committee

Temporary joint panel to reconcile House–Senate bill differences.

conformity costs

Sacrifices individuals make when collective decisions diverge from their preferences.

conservative

Ideology favoring limited government, free markets, and traditional norms.

constitution

Document outlining government structure, powers, and limits.

constitutional courts

Federal courts created under Article III, including the Supreme Court and lower courts.

Court-packing plan

FDR’s failed 1937 attempt to add justices to secure support for New Deal laws.

credibility gap

Reporters’ suspicion that presidents may deceive the media when convenient.

cruel & unusual punishments

Excessive or torturous penalties barred by the Eighth Amendment.

cutthroat competition

States adopting undesirable policies to outbid one another (e.g., tax breaks).

Declaration of Independence

1776 document proclaiming the colonies’ separation from Britain.

de facto segregation

Racial separation resulting from social practice, not law.

de jure segregation

Segregation mandated by law.

delegation

Granting authority to another actor to act on one’s behalf.

direct democracy

Citizens vote on laws themselves rather than via representatives.

divided government

When presidency and at least one congressional chamber are controlled by different parties.

dual federalism

Doctrine of separate, non-overlapping spheres for national and state governments.

due process clause

Fifth & Fourteenth Amendment guarantee against arbitrary governmental action.

earmarks

Budget funds set aside for specific projects in legislators’ districts.

elastic (necessary & proper) clause

Allows Congress to pass laws needed to execute its enumerated powers.

Electoral College

Body of electors that formally chooses the U.S. president and vice president.

equal protection clause

Fourteenth Amendment guarantee of equal legal protection for all citizens.

establishment clause

First Amendment ban on governmental establishment of religion.

exclusionary rule

Illegally obtained evidence cannot be used in court.

executive agreement

International agreement made by the president without Senate approval.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Collection of agencies assisting the president (e.g., OMB, NSC).

executive order

Presidential directive instructing executive agencies how to implement policies.

executive privilege

President’s right to keep certain communications confidential from other branches.

externality

Public cost or benefit produced as a by-product of private activity (e.g., pollution).

faction

Group sharing interests opposed to others; Madison feared factional tyranny.

federalism

Power divided between national and regional governments.

Federalists

Supporters of Constitution’s ratification; later, a political party led by Hamilton.

filibuster

Senate tactic of prolonged debate to block legislation.

fire alarms (oversight)

Congressional oversight relying on outside actors to alert it to agency failures.

framing

Media’s shaping of how people interpret political events and issues.

free exercise clause

First Amendment protection of religious practice from government interference.

free-rider problem

People benefit from a collective good without contributing to its provision.

gerrymandering

Drawing districts to benefit a party or group disproportionately.

going public

Presidential strategy of appealing directly to voters to pressure other officials.

Great Compromise

1787 agreement creating a bicameral Congress: population-based House, equal-state Senate.

gridlock

Policy stalemate when branches or parties refuse to compromise.

ideology

Integrated set of political beliefs and values.

incorporation (selective)

Applying Bill of Rights protections to states via the Fourteenth Amendment.

interest group

Organized body seeking to influence public policy.

iron triangle

Stable alliance among a congressional committee, agency, and interest group.

issue network

Loose, changing coalition of groups and individuals in a policy area.

issue voting

Choosing candidates based on policy positions rather than party or personality.

Jim Crow laws

State and local statutes enforcing racial segregation in the South after Reconstruction.

judicial review

Courts’ power to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.

Lemon test

Three-part test for determining if a law violates the establishment clause.

liberal

Ideology favoring active government to address inequality and tolerant social policies.

lobbying

Efforts to influence public policy by persuading officials.

majority leader

Head of the majority party in the Senate; second-ranking in the House.

majority rule

Decision principle where preferences of over half the voters prevail.

matching grant

Federal funds that match state spending in a policy area.

measurement error

Inaccuracy in survey results due to question wording or respondent misunderstanding.

Miranda rule

Police must inform suspects of rights to silence and counsel.

nationalization

Shift of policy responsibilities from states to the national government.

necessary & proper clause

Grants Congress elasticity to pass laws to carry out enumerated powers.

New Deal coalition

Democratic voter alliance dominating U.S. politics from 1930s to early 1970s.

news outlet

Organization that gathers and disseminates news via a medium.

obscenity

Sexually explicit material lacking serious value, not protected by the First Amendment.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

EOP agency drafting the federal budget and overseeing agencies.

opinion leader

Highly informed citizen to whom others look for political cues.