4/3/25 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: NEUROLOGY & PSYCHIATRY

Introduction of the nervous system

Gathers information
• Integrates information
• Makes decisions about what to do
with information
• Divided into 2 parts: central and
peripheral
• 2 divisions of action: voluntary and
involuntary

1. Structural Divisions:

- Central Nervous System (CNS):

- Consists of the brain and spinal cord

- Controls most functions of the body and mind

- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

- Includes all the nerves outside the CNS

- Connects the CNS to the rest of the body

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2. Functional Divisions:

- Voluntary (Somatic Nervous System):

- Controls skeletal muscles

- Responsible for conscious movements (e.g., walking, grabbing an object)

- Involuntary (Autonomic Nervous System):

- Regulates automatic body functions (e.g., heartbeat, digestion)

- Has two parts:

- Sympathetic (fight or flight)- preparing body for stress or danger increasing heart rate

- Parasympathetic (rest and digest)- promotes rests or digests

Introduction 2

Involved in how we behave:
emotions, opinions, beliefs
• Psyche
• 2 professions dealing with
psyche: psychiatry -A medical field focused on diagnosing, treating, and preventing mental illnesses.
psychology- The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

INTRODUCTION 3

What you see, hear, and feel affects
your general perception of the world
around you.
Affects your emotions, opinions, or
beliefs
Neurology focuses on actions.
Psychiatry and psychology focus on
problems in human perceptions,
emotions, and behavior.

Sensory system

Eyes, ears, nose, and skin
•Sends messages to the brain via nerves
•Brain interprets the message and determines
the action
•Pain is sent out via nerves

Central Nervous System

• Brain and spinal cord
• Covered with protective membranes called meninges
• Tough outer layer: dura
• Cerebrum – largest part of brain, divided into
• Lobes
• Hemispheres
• Cerebellum – below the cerebrum

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY ROOT WORDS FOR STRUCTURE OF THE
BRAIN

### Brain-Related Root Words and Their Meanings

1. Cerebr/o, Encephal/o (Brain)

- Cerebropathy – Any disease of the brain.

- Cerebrospinal – Relating to the brain and spinal cord.

- Encephalitis – Inflammation of the brain.

- Encephalogram – A recording or imaging of the brain (often from EEG or other scans).

- *Note:* Encephalo- refers to structures inside the head (brain).

2. Cerebell/o (Cerebellum, Part of the Brain)

- Cerebellar – Pertaining to the cerebellum.

- Cerebellitis – Inflammation of the cerebellum.

3. Lob/o (Lobe, Section of the Brain or Another Organ)

- Lobotomy – Surgical procedure involving cutting into a lobe of the brain.

- Lobectomy – Surgical removal of a lobe (e.g., of the brain, lung, or liver).

This terminology is useful in neurology and surgery. Are you studying this for a class?

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

Great! Here’s a breakdown of these terms related to the head and brain structures:

### Cephal/o – Head

- Microcephaly – A condition where the head (and often the brain) is abnormally small.

- Macrocephaly – A condition where the head is abnormally large.

### Dur/o – Tough, Hard Outer Membrane (Refers to the Dura Mater)

- Epidural – Located above the dura mater; often refers to pain relief injections (e.g., epidural anesthesia).

- Subdural – Located beneath the dura mater; often used to describe subdural hematomas (bleeding under the dura).

Mening/o, Meningi/o – Refers to the Meninges (Membranes Surrounding the Brain and Spinal Cord)

• Meningitis – Inflammation of the meninges, often due to infection.

• Meningopathy – Any disease affecting the meninges.

Crani/o – Refers to the Head or Skull

• Craniometer – An instrument used to measure the size and shape of the skull.

• Craniotomy – A surgical procedure where part of the skull is removed to access the brain.

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

You're doing a great job organizing these medical terms! Here’s a breakdown:

### Gangli/o – Nerve Bundle (Ganglion)

- Ganglion – A mass of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system.

- Gangliitis – Inflammation of a ganglion.

### Myel/o – Bone Marrow or Spinal Cord

- Myelitis – Inflammation of the spinal cord or bone marrow.

- Myelodysplasia – Abnormal development of the spinal cord or bone marrow, often associated with blood disorders or spina bifida.

### Neur/o – Nerve

- Neuralgia – Nerve pain.

- Neuropathy – Disease or dysfunction of the nerves, often causing weakness, numbness, or pain (e.g., diabetic neuropathy).

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

Esthesi/o – Feeling or Sensation

• Anesthesia – Loss of sensation, often induced for medical procedures.

• Hyperesthesia – Increased sensitivity to touch, pain, or other sensory stimuli.

Sleep-Related Terminology (Somn/o, Somn/i, Hypn/o – Sleep)

• Somnography – The recording or study of sleep patterns (also called polysomnography).

• Insomnia – Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

• Hypnosis – A trance-like state induced by suggestion.

• Somnambulism – Sleepwalking.

Phas/o – Speech

• Aphasia – Loss or impairment of speech due to brain injury or stroke.

-Asthenia – Weakness

• Myasthenia – Muscle weakness, often due to a neuromuscular disorder like myasthenia gravis.

• Phonasthenia – Weakness or fatigue of the voice.

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

Phren/o, Psych/o – Mind

• Phrenetic – Relating to frenzy or extreme excitement (older term, not commonly used in modern medicine).

• Psychology – The study of the mind and behavior.

Gnosi/o – Knowledge

• Agnosia – The inability to process sensory information, despite normal sensory function (e.g., visual agnosia – inability to recognize objects).

• Diagnosis – Identifying a disease or condition based on symptoms and tests.

• Prognosis – The predicted outcome or course of a disease.

NERVOUS SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

mania (Excessive Desire or Obsession)

• Kleptomania – An uncontrollable urge to steal things, even if they are not needed.

• Pyromania – A compulsive desire to set fires.

-phobia (Excessive Fear)

• Photophobia – Extreme sensitivity to light, often due to migraines or eye conditions.

• Cynophobia – Fear of dogs.

• Acrophobia – Fear of heights.

• Ablutophobia – Fear of bathing or washing.

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS,
COMPLAINTS

It

### Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

- Signals sent to the brain: These are sensory signals, which are transmitted from sensory receptors (like touch or temperature) to the brain.

- Signals sent from the brain: These are motor signals, which carry instructions from the brain to muscles for movement.

- Sensory (neuralgia/causalgia):

- Neuralgia refers to nerve pain, which can occur when the nerves are damaged or irritated.

- Causalgia is a specific type of nerve pain, often described as burning or intense pain, typically after an injury.

- Motor (paralysis): Paralysis is the loss of muscle function and movement, often due to damage to motor nerves.

### Central Nervous System (CNS):

- Fainting (syncope): Syncope refers to a temporary loss of consciousness due to a sudden drop in blood flow to the brain, causing fainting.

- Speaking (aphasia/dysphagia):

- Aphasia is the inability to speak or understand language, often caused by brain damage, like from a stroke.

- Dysphagia refers to difficulty swallowing, which can result from neurological issues.

- Reading (dyslexia): Dyslexia is a learning disorder that involves difficulty reading due to problems identifying speech sounds and decoding words.

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS,
COMPLAINTS:

Speech Impairment

• Aphasia – The inability to speak or understand language due to brain damage (common after a stroke).

• Dysphasia – Partial impairment of language ability, affecting speech comprehension or expression.

Coordination Impairment

• Ataxia – Lack of muscle coordination, leading to unsteady movements; often caused by neurological disorders (e.g., cerebellar damage).

Muscle Tone Impairment

• Catatonia – A state of abnormal muscle tone and mental unresponsiveness, often seen in psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia.

• Dystonia – Involuntary muscle contractions causing repetitive movements or abnormal postures.

Sure!

- Catatonia: A psychiatric syndrome with immobility, mutism, or repetitive movements.

- Dystonia: A movement disorder causing involuntary muscle contractions and abnormal postures.

- Catatonia: No movement or speech.

- Dystonia: Involuntary muscle twisting.

Involuntary-done without will or conscious control.

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS,COMPLAINTS:

- Delirium: Temporary confusion and cognitive disturbance, often caused by infections or medication.

- Dementia: Progressive decline in memory and cognitive functions (e.g., Alzheimer's).

- Dyslexia: Difficulty with reading, spelling, and comprehension due to a learning disorder.

Movement Impairment

- Dyskinesia: Involuntary, abnormal movements, often from Parkinson’s or medication side effects.

Muscle Twitching

- Myoclonus: Sudden, involuntary muscle jerks, common in neurological disorders or sleep.

Muscle Spasms

- Myospasm: Sudden, painful, involuntary muscle contractions.

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS, COMPLAINTS

Partial Loss of Sensation or Movement

• Paresis – Weakness or partial loss of movement in a muscle or group of muscles.

• Hemiparesis – Weakness on one side of the body, often caused by a stroke or brain injury.

• Monoparesis – Weakness in one limb (arm or leg), typically caused by neurological conditions.

Complete Loss of Sensation or Movement

• Paralysis – Complete loss of movement or sensation in a muscle or group of muscles.

• Hemiplegia – Complete paralysis on one side of the body, usually due to a stroke or brain injury.

• Monoplegia – Complete paralysis of one limb (either an arm or leg).

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS, COMPLAINTS

• - Dysesthesia: Abnormal, often painful sensation due to nerve damage.

  - Hyperesthesia: Increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli.

  - Paresthesia: Abnormal sensation like tingling or numbness, often from nerve compression.

  - Pseudesthesia: False sensation without actual stimulus, like phantom limb pain.

  - Synesthesia: Sensory overlap, where one sense triggers another (e.g., seeing colors with music).

  - Causalgia: Severe, burning pain from nerve damage, often with CRPS.

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS, COMPLAINTS

Emotional Problems

• Depression – A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in daily activities.

• Anxiety – A state of excessive worry, fear, or nervousness, often accompanied by physical symptoms like increased heart rate or shortness of breath.

Erratic Behaviors

• Phobias – Excessive, irrational fears of specific objects, situations, or activities (e.g., arachnophobia – fear of spiders).

• Manias – Periods of elevated mood, increased energy, and impulsive behavior, commonly associated with bipolar disorder.

Delirium and Dementia

• Delirium – A temporary state of confusion and disorientation, often caused by infections, medication, or other medical conditions.

• Dementia – A chronic decline in cognitive function, leading to problems with memory, reasoning, and communication, often associated with Alzheimer's disease.

- Delirium: Sudden, temporary confusion or cognitive disturbance, often caused by illness or medication.

- Dementia: Gradual, progressive decline in memory and cognitive function, such as in Alzheimer's disease. Long time

PATIENT HISTORY, PROBLEMS, COMPLAINTS

Phobias (Excessive, Irrational Fears)

• Acrophobia – Fear of heights.

• Agoraphobia – Fear of open spaces or being in situations where escape might be difficult, often leading to avoidance of crowds or leaving the house.

• Hydrophobia – Fear of water, often associated with rabies, but can also be a psychological condition.

• Photophobia – Fear or sensitivity to light, often due to conditions like migraines or eye disorders.

Manias (Excessive Desire or Obsession)

• Kleptomania – An uncontrollable urge to steal, regardless of need or value.

• Pyromania – A compulsive desire to set fires, typically without a rational motive but often linked to tension relief or excitement

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY

### Lab Tests & Procedures:

1. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Analysis

- Examines the clear fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord

- Helps diagnose infections, bleeding, or neurological conditions

2. Lumbar Puncture (LP) (Spinal Tap)

- A needle is inserted into the lower back to collect CSF

- Used to diagnose conditions like meningitis, multiple sclerosis, or brain bleeds

### Imaging & Diagnostic Tests:

3. CT Scan (Computed Tomography)

- Uses X-rays to take detailed pictures of the brain and spine

- Good for detecting bleeding, tumors, or head injuries

4. Ultrasound (US)

- Uses sound waves to produce images

- Commonly used in babies to examine the brain through the soft spots on the skull

5. EEG (Electroencephalogram)

- Measures electrical activity of the brain

- Helps diagnose seizures, epilepsy, and brain disorders

6. MRA (Magnetic Resonance Angiography)

- A type of MRI that looks specifically at blood vessels

- Detects aneurysms, blockages, or vessel abnormalities

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY:

You're continuing to build a solid understanding of brain-related conditions! Here’s a breakdown of the terms:

### Conditions: Structure of the Brain

- Cerebellitis – Inflammation of the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for coordination and motor control.

- Cerebral Atrophy – The shrinkage or loss of brain tissue, often seen in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.

- Duritis – Inflammation of the dura mater, the tough outer membrane surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

### Conditions: Size of Skull

- Microcephaly – A condition where the skull and brain are abnormally small, often leading to developmental and cognitive impairments.

- Macrocephaly – An abnormally large head or skull, which may be due to conditions like hydrocephalus or genetic disorders.

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY

### Conditions: Hematomas

- Cranial Hematoma: Blood buildup inside the skull, usually from injury.

- Epidural Hematoma: Bleeding between skull and dura mater, often from trauma.

- Intracerebral Hematoma: Bleeding within brain tissue, linked to strokes or injuries.

- Subdural Hematoma: Bleeding between dura and arachnoid mater, often from head injury.

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY

### Conditions: Herniations

- Encephalocele: Brain tissue protrudes through a skull defect at birth.

- Meningocele: Meninges protrude through a spinal or skull defect; spinal cord not involved.

- Myelocele: Spinal cord exposed through a back defect, with no meninges covering.

- Myelomeningocele: Spinal cord and meninges protrude; causes severe neurological issues.

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY:

### Conditions: Nerves

- Neuritis – Inflammation of a nerve, often causing pain, weakness, or loss of function in the affected area. It can result from infections, injuries, or autoimmune conditions.

- Polyneuritis – Inflammation of multiple nerves in the body, leading to symptoms like pain, weakness, or numbness in various regions. It’s often associated with conditions like Guillain-Barré syndrome or vitamin deficiencies.

- Neuroma – A benign tumor of nerve tissue, typically formed from nerve cells or fibers. An example is schwannoma, which arises from Schwann cells (cells that produce the myelin sheath around nerves).

- Neurosclerosis – Hardening or scarring of nerve tissue, often associated with progressive conditions like multiple sclerosis or other neurodegenerative disorders.

You're focusing on an important condition related to the spinal cord. Here's a breakdown:

### Conditions: Spinal Cord

- Myelomalacia – The softening of the spinal cord, often caused by a lack of blood flow (ischemia) or injury. This condition can lead to permanent damage to the spinal cord, resulting in loss of function, including paralysis or sensory deficits, depending on the location of the injury.

This condition is critical in neurosurgery, trauma care, and spinal cord rehabilitation. If you need further details or want to explore related conditions, feel free to ask! 😊

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY

### Seizures

- Preictal – The period before a seizure, when a person may experience warning signs or symptoms (such as aura), indicating that a seizure is about to occur.

- Interictal – The period between seizures, where the person may be symptom-free or experience ongoing neurological symptoms related to their condition.

- Postictal – The period after a seizure, characterized by confusion, fatigue, headache, or other physical or cognitive effects as the brain recovers from the seizure.

- Idiopathic Tonic – A type of seizure that involves muscle stiffness or rigidity (tonic phase) without a known cause (idiopathic). These may occur as part of other seizure disorders.

- Clonus – A series of involuntary, rhythmic muscle contractions and relaxations that often occur during or after a seizure, especially in the lower limbs.

- Tonic-clonic seizure – A type of seizure that involves both muscle rigidity (tonic phase) and rhythmic jerking movements (clonic phase). This is also known as a grand mal seizure and is one of the most well-known forms of generalized seizures.

OBSERVATION AND DISCOVERY:

### Conditions: Comprehension

- Agnosia – The inability to recognize or interpret sensory stimuli, despite the sensory organs functioning normally. It can affect various senses (e.g., visual, auditory) and may result from brain damage, often due to stroke or neurodegenerative diseases.

- Prosopagnosia – A specific form of agnosia where individuals have difficulty recognizing faces, even though they can recognize other objects or people.

### Conditions: Emotion

- Apathy – A lack of emotion, interest, or enthusiasm, often associated with depression, neurological disorders, or psychiatric conditions. People with apathy may seem indifferent or uninterested in activities that would normally engage them.

- Agnosia: Inability to recognize sensory information despite normal senses.

- Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize faces.

- Apathy: Lack of emotion or interest.

DIAGNOSIS AND PATHOLOGY

Neurogenic problems
Disorders of the skull – i.e. premature
closure of joints between skull bones
Disorders of blood supply – i.e. stroke
Injury – i.e. trauma or infection

DIAGNOSIS AND PATHOLOGY:

You're covering important conditions related to altered blood flow in the brain. Here's a breakdown of these terms:

### Altered Blood Flow

- Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA): A stroke; blood flow to the brain is blocked or interrupted, causing brain damage.

- Hemorrhagic Stroke: Bleeding in or around the brain due to a burst blood vessel.

- Ischemic Stroke: A blocked blood vessel reduces brain blood flow.

- Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA): Temporary stroke-like symptoms from brief blood flow blockage; no lasting damage.

DIAGNOSIS AND PATHOLOGY

Conditions Related to Cerebrovascular Disease

Brain Conditions

- Cerebral Aneurysm: Bulging brain blood vessel that may rupture.

- Cerebral Arteriosclerosis: Hardening of brain arteries, reducing blood flow.

- Cerebral Embolism: Blocked brain artery from a traveling clot.

- Cerebral Thrombosis: Brain blood clot causing a blockage.

Skull Conditions

- Craniomalacia: Softening of the skull bones.

- Craniosclerosis: Hardening or thickening of the skull bones.

DIAGNOSIS AND PATHOLOGY

Here’s a brief overview of the conditions you mentioned:

1. Anorexia: Eating disorder with extreme fear of weight gain and self-starvation.

2. Bulimia: Eating disorder with bingeing and purging behaviors.

3. Dysphoria: Persistent feeling of unhappiness or dissatisfaction.

4. Euphoria: Intense feeling of happiness or well-being.

5. Hypomania: Mildly elevated mood and energy.

6. Manic Depression (Bipolar Disorder): Mood disorder with episodes of mania and depression.

7. Psychopathy: Personality disorder with lack of empathy and manipulative behavior.

8. Psychosis: Loss of touch with reality, includes hallucinations or delusions.

9. Schizophrenia: Severe disorder with distorted thinking, perception, and behavior.

TREATMENTS AND THERAPIES

You're covering a wide range of medications related to the nervous system and psychiatric treatments. Here's a breakdown of these terms:

### Anesthetics

- Anesthetics – Medications that block pain sensations and can induce a temporary loss of consciousness or sensation. They are used in surgeries and other medical procedures.

- Local Anesthetic – Numbs a small, specific area of the body (e.g., for dental procedures).

- Regional Anesthetic – Numbs a larger area of the body, such as during childbirth or certain surgeries (e.g., epidurals or spinal anesthesia).

- General Anesthetic – Induces a loss of consciousness and sensation for major surgeries (e.g., during open-heart surgery).

- Topical Anesthetic – Applied directly to the skin to numb the surface area.

- Epidural Anesthetic – Delivered to the epidural space in the spine to numb the lower part of the body, often used in childbirth or certain surgeries.

### Psychiatric Medications

- Psychopharmacology – The study of the effects of medications on mood, behavior, and mental health.

- Psychotropic – Medications that affect the mind, influencing emotions, perceptions, and thoughts.

- Antidepressant – Used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other mood-related conditions. Examples include SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) and SNRIs (serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors).

- Antipsychotic – Used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe anxiety. They work by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

- Anxiolytic – Medications used to reduce anxiety, such as benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam or lorazepam).

### Nervous System Medications

- Neuropharmacology – The study of how drugs affect the nervous system and its functions.

- Analgesic – Pain-relieving medications, which may include over-the-counter medications like ibuprofen, or stronger medications like opioids.

- Anticonvulsant – Medications used to prevent or treat seizures (e.g., phenytoin, valproate).

- Hypnotic – Medications used to induce sleep, often used in the treatment of insomnia.

- Thrombolytic – Medications that help to dissolve blood clots, often used in stroke treatment or for preventing heart attacks.

- Chemotherapy – A class of medications used to treat cancer, but can also affect the nervous system and other body systems.

These categories of medications are crucial in medicine, psychiatry, and neurology. If you'd like more detailed information or examples of any specific medication, let me know! 😊

You're covering a wide range of medications related to the nervous system and psychiatric treatments. Here's a breakdown of these terms:

### Anesthetics

- Anesthetics – Medications that block pain sensations and can induce a temporary loss of consciousness or sensation. They are used in surgeries and other medical procedures.

- Local Anesthetic – Numbs a small, specific area of the body (e.g., for dental procedures).

- Regional Anesthetic – Numbs a larger area of the body, such as during childbirth or certain surgeries (e.g., epidurals or spinal anesthesia).

- General Anesthetic – Induces a loss of consciousness and sensation for major surgeries (e.g., during open-heart surgery).

- Topical Anesthetic – Applied directly to the skin to numb the surface area.

- Epidural Anesthetic – Delivered to the epidural space in the spine to numb the lower part of the body, often used in childbirth or certain surgeries.

### Psychiatric Medications

- Psychopharmacology – The study of the effects of medications on mood, behavior, and mental health.

- Psychotropic – Medications that affect the mind, influencing emotions, perceptions, and thoughts.

- Antidepressant – Used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other mood-related conditions. Examples include SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) and SNRIs (serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors).

- Antipsychotic – Used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe anxiety. They work by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

- Anxiolytic – Medications used to reduce anxiety, such as benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam or lorazepam).

### Nervous System Medications

- Neuropharmacology – The study of how drugs affect the nervous system and its functions.

- Analgesic – Pain-relieving medications, which may include over-the-counter medications like ibuprofen, or stronger medications like opioids.

- Anticonvulsant – Medications used to prevent or treat seizures (e.g., phenytoin, valproate).

- Hypnotic – Medications used to induce sleep, often used in the treatment of insomnia.

- Thrombolytic – Medications that help to dissolve blood clots, often used in stroke treatment or for preventing heart attacks.

- Chemotherapy – A class of medications used to treat cancer, but can also affect the nervous system and other body systems.

These categories of medications are crucial in medicine, psychiatry, and neurology. If you'd like more detailed information or examples of any specific medication, let me know! 😊

TREATMENTS AND THERAPIES

Anesthetics

- Anesthetics: Drugs that block pain or cause unconsciousness.

- Local Anesthetic: Numbs a small area.

- Regional Anesthetic: Numbs a larger body part.

- General Anesthetic: Causes full unconsciousness.

- Topical Anesthetic: Applied on skin to numb surface.

- Epidural Anesthetic: Numbs lower body via spine.

Psychiatric Medications

- Psychopharmacology: Study of how drugs affect mental health.

- Psychotropic: Drugs that alter mood or behavior.

- Antidepressant: Treats depression and anxiety.

- Antipsychotic: Treats psychosis and mood disorders.

- Anxiolytic: Reduces anxiety.

Nervous System Medications

- Neuropharmacology: Study of drug effects on the nervous system.

- Analgesic: Relieves pain.

- Anticonvulsant: Prevents seizures.

- Hypnotic: Induces sleep.

- Thrombolytic: Dissolves blood clots.

- Chemotherapy: Cancer treatment drugs, can affect nerves.

TREATMENTS AND THERAPIES:

Surgical Interventions: Brain

- Cerebrotomy: Incision into the brain for treatment.

- Lobectomy: Removal of a brain lobe.

- Lobotomy: Old procedure cutting brain connections, now rare.

- Endarterectomy: Removal of artery plaque to prevent stroke.

- Endovascular Neurosurgery: Minimally invasive brain vessel surgery.

Surgical Interventions: Skull

- Craniectomy: Skull part removed to relieve brain pressure.

- Craniotomy: Skull opened for brain surgery, then replaced.

Surgical Interventions: Nerves

- Neurectomy: Nerve removal to relieve pain.

- Neurolysis: Nerve tissue destruction or scar release.

- Neuroplasty: Nerve repair or reconstruction.

- Neurorrhaphy: Suturing a severed nerve.

ABBREVIATIONS

MS Multiple Sclerosis
ICP Intracranial Pressure
LOC Level of Consciousness
ADHD Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
OCD Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
CP Cerebral Palsy⑤