gas volume
same for any one mole at room temperature and pressure
number of moles
= volume in dm3 ÷ 24dm3
room temperature and pressure
298k or 25 ˚c
100 kPa
ideal gas equation
pV = nRT
p = pressure (Pa), V = volume (m3), n = moles, R = gas constant , t = temperature (K)
pV÷RT =
moles, rearranged equation of pV = nRT
gas syringe
used to measure gas volume produced
enthalpy change
∆h is the heat energy transferred in reaction at constant pressure, kJ mol -1
exothermic
gives out energy ∆H is negative, typically oxidation like combustion
endothermic
absorbs energy ∆H is positive eg thermal decomposition or photosynthesis
breaking bonds
energy is required so endothermic ∆H positive
forming bonds
energy released so is exothermic ∆H negative
average bond enthalpies
used to calculate enthalpy changes, for each individual bond , energy needed to break one mole of bonds in gas phase, averaged over many compounds
enthalpy change of reaction
energy absorbed to break bonds - energy released in making bonds
short bond length
means theres a higher bond enthalpy due to there been high attraction between atoms
balanced forces
relation between repulsion between nuclei / electrons and attraction between nuclei and electrons are…
standard enthalpy change of reaction
∆rHø, when as reaction occurs in molar quantities shown in equation
standard enthalpy change of formation
∆fHø, when 1 mole of compound is from formed from its elements in standard states under standard condition
standard enthalpy change of combustion
∆cHø, when 1 mole of substance is completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions
hess law
total enthalpy change of a reaction is always the same regardless of the route taken
enthalpy of reaction
= enthalpy of formation (products) - enthalpy of formation (reactants)
drawn with elements going to reactants and products
enthalpy of formation
= enthalpy of combustion (products) - enthalpy of combustion (reactants)
drawn with products and reactants going to products of combustion
reactant enthalpy
bond enthalpy (reactants) - bond enthalpy (products)
endothermic reaction
enthalpy of reaction increases, with products ending with more energy than reactants started with
exothermic reaction
enthalpy of reaction decreases, with products ending with less energy than reactants started with
enthalpy level digram
a diagram showing reactants, intermediates and products allowing you to see different routes and activation energy
calorimetry
used to determine energy given out or absorbed by a reaction by measuring temperature change of water
standard enthalpy change of neutralisation
enthalpy change when an acid and and alkali react to form 1 mole of water
calorimetry of a flammable liquid
burn a amount of liquid and heat water, record the temperature change and the mass of water
calorimetry of a solution
add a known volume of acid alkali to a insulated container record the start and end temperature and mass
calculate enthalpy change kJ mol-1
q = mc∆T
q - enthalpy change
m - mass of water or solution
c - specific heat capacity of water
∆T - change in temp of water or solution
cause of error in calorimetry
heat loss- shield
incomplete combustion
evaporation
flame distance
catalysts
increases rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway with an lower activation energy, without been used by
haber process
uses an iron catalyst
cracking
splitting of a long chain hydrocarbon in to smaller hydrocarbons using using a catalyst to reduce the temp needed to 450˚c
heterogeneous catalyst
catalysts that are in a different physical state as reactants
heterogeneous catalysts process
reactants adsorb to catalyst surface
bond are weakened so break (forms radicals)
new bonds made and desorb
adsorption
process of a reactant bonding just enough to catalyst surface that bonds can be easily broken and released
catalysts poisons
causes them not to work due to surface been covered eg iron by CO or lead on platinum catalytic converters
alkane
saturated hydrocarbon with general formula CnH2n+2
alkenes
unsaturated hydrocarbon with double bonds, general formula of CnH2n
cycloalkanes
saturated hydrocarbon that forms ring, general formula CnH2n
cyclic alkene
a unsaturated hydrocarbon ring with 2 less H than alkenes, stable due to delocalised structure eg benzene and cyclopentene
aromatic compounds or arenes
names for compounds with benzene rings
alcohols
compounds containing -OH hydroxyl group
electron repulsion
shape is created by electrons trying to be as far aspart as possible
tetrahedral
shape of alkenes with a bond angle of 109.5
trigonal planar
shape around a double bond with a bond angle of 120˚
sigma
type of bond between a single covalent bond between atoms, due to the 2 orbitals overlapping in a straight line
sigma and pi bond
type of bond between a double covalent bond, 1 central bond and 1 caused by the overlap of 2 p orbitals sideways, this second one is weaker than the first
general formula
formula that can describe any member of a family of compounds eg CnH2n+1OH
molecular formula
formula with the actual number of atoms in a molecule eg C2H10O
shortened structural formula
shows the atoms carbon by carbon with attached atoms and functional groups eg CH3CH2OH
structural formula
formula showing how the atoms are arranged with their bonds
skeletal formula
shows the bonds of the carbon chain only with any functional groups
different carbon skeleton
isomers with the carbon chain arranged differently, similar chemical properties but different physical properties
functional group location
the carbon chain is the same but the functional group is attached to a different carbon, different physical properties and may have different chemical properties
different functional groups
same atoms arranged into different functional groups very different physical and chemical properties
double bonds
bonds which atoms cannot freely rotate around causing E/Z isomerism
stereoisomers
molecules with the same shortened structural formula but different arrangement
E/Z isomerism
occurs due to lack of rotation around double bonds and different atoms/groups bonded the the carbons, involves H
opposite sides
E or trans isomer
same side
Z or cis is
cis/trans isomerism
isomerism if no H on both sides
addition polymer
formed when the double bonds in alkens break and bond to each other
hydrogen added
added to change an alkene to an alkane in the presence of a nickel catalyst at 150˚c and high pressure or platinum and room temp and pressure
bromine water
used to test for alkanes as it bonds to the double bond causing a colour change orange to colourless
electrophilic addition
double bonds open up and atoms are added
electrophiles
electron pair acceptors eg positively charged ions or polar molecules (double bond)
electrophilic addition mechanism
double bond repels electrons in Br2 polarising it ∂+Br-Br∂-
electrons are transferred to one Br from the bond, electrons from the double bond are transferred to the other Br and it bonds
a positively charged carbocation intermediate is formed which Br- bonds to
hydrating alkanes in presence of acid catalyst
produces an alcohol by electrophilic addition
alcohol making process
cold conc sulphuric acid reacts with an alkene in electrophilic addition reaction to make an intermediate
add cold water and warm to hydrolyse in to product by removing the SO2 regenerating H2SO4
steam hydration
used to make ethanol by hydrating in steam at 300˚c and 60 atm using solid phosphoric acid catalyst, reversible and low yield 5% but recycles to yield 95%
complete combustion
exothermic reaction of alkane in oxygen produces CO2 and water
green house effect
earth radiates infrared radiation and greenhouse gases absorb some of this in the atmosphere keeping earth warm
incomplete combustion
results in formation of carbon monoxide
carbon monoxide
mainly produced in car engines and poisonous
nitrogen oxides
contribute to smog, formed in high pressure and temp of car engines, reacts with sunlight to form ground level ozone which is an irritant
sulfur dioxide
leads to acid rain, produce when fuel contains it, once in atmosphere it dissolves in moisture forming an acid, which destroys vegetation , corrodes buildings and kills fish in lakes, removed from fuels using calcium oxide
particulates
tiny particles of liquid or solids suspended in air, which can settle in lungs and cause issues, removed with wet scrubbers and filters
fossil fuels
non renewable resources like coal, oil and natural ga
decrease pollution
change laws
emissions test, compulsory catalytic converter
tax fuel
car share, public transport, bikes
renewable fuels
wind, solar and wave power, expensive and need to be extensive
biofuels- produce CO2 and take up farm land
hydrogen- burnt or fuel cell, energy transporter, difficult to transport(liquified)
energy security
make sure there is enough clean and affordable energy