Peterloo / Chartism / The Reform Acts

What historical events shaped the British political system before 1832?

The system was rooted in the constitutional settlement following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Bill of Rights of 1689. These events limited royal power and established parliamentary supremacy, forming the basis of Britain's constitutional monarchy.

What were the two types of constituencies in pre-1832 Britain, and whom did they represent?

The two constituencies were counties and boroughs. Counties were meant to represent landowners, while boroughs represented commercial and professional interests, though this distinction often failed to reflect the true economic realities of industrial Britain.

Why were “rotten boroughs” and “pocket boroughs” seen as corrupt?

Rotten boroughs had very few or no residents left but still sent MPs to Parliament, often chosen by a local patron rather than voters. This allowed powerful individuals to manipulate parliamentary seats, making the system highly undemocratic.

What was the “forty-shilling freehold” rule, and what was its consequence?

Established in the 1430s, it granted voting rights to men owning freehold land worth at least forty shillings annually. Since the threshold was never adjusted for inflation, only a small elite could vote, keeping power in the hands of the landed gentry.

Who were excluded from voting rights before 1832, and when were some of these restrictions lifted?

Dissenters and Catholics were excluded by the Test Acts of 1673 and 1678 but were re-enfranchised in 1828–1829. Women were not explicitly banned but, by social convention, did not vote, and the poor majority of men remained disenfranchised.

How representative was the electorate before 1832?

Out of about 14 million people in England and Wales, only around 400,000 could vote. This meant less than 3% of the population had political representation, reinforcing the dominance of the aristocracy and upper classes.

Why did industrialisation challenge the old political system?

The Industrial Revolution created new urban centres and middle classes whose wealth and influence were not reflected politically. This mismatch between social reality and representation made reform both necessary and inevitable.

What did the Tory vision of society prioritise after the French and American Revolutions?

The Tories emphasised preserving social hierarchy, monarchy, and aristocratic dominance. They feared revolution and believed that maintaining order required resisting democratic reforms.

How did the Peterloo Massacre of 1819 expose tensions in British society?

The massacre occurred when peaceful reformers were attacked by cavalry, resulting in deaths and hundreds of injuries. It symbolised the state’s brutal resistance to reform and awakened national outrage against Tory repression.

What were the Six Acts, and what did they aim to suppress?

Passed after Peterloo, the Six Acts restricted public meetings, controlled the press, and increased penalties for sedition. They aimed to stifle radical movements and maintain political control through censorship and intimidation.

Why did the Duke of Wellington oppose electoral reform?

Wellington feared that extending the vote to the middle classes would destabilise Britain, as had occurred during France’s revolutions. He believed political power should remain with the landed elite to preserve social order.

What role did the Birmingham Political Union play in the reform movement?

Founded by Thomas Attwood, it united middle and working-class reformers in a peaceful campaign for parliamentary reform. It became a model for lawful mass political mobilisation, increasing pressure on the government to act.

What distinguished the Whigs’ view of reform from the Tories’?

The Whigs accepted that limited reform was necessary to prevent revolution. They aimed to adjust, not abolish, aristocratic power, by granting representation to the respectable middle classes created by industrialisation.

Why did Earl Grey and the Whigs seek to enfranchise the middle class?

They believed the middle classes were morally respectable, economically stable, and capable of responsible political participation. By enfranchising them, the Whigs hoped to isolate radical working-class movements.

What did Earl Grey mean by associating the middle with the higher orders?

He intended to integrate the middle classes into the existing social hierarchy by giving them a stake in the political system. This would strengthen support for established institutions and reduce revolutionary risk.

Who was Thomas Paine, and how did he influence British radicals?

Thomas Paine was an English thinker and revolutionary whose works Common Sense and The Rights of Man championed democracy and equality. His ideas inspired British radicals to demand universal male suffrage and the end of privilege.

What were the “Gagging Acts” of 1795, and how did they affect radical organisations?

These acts restricted public assemblies and radical publications to prevent revolutionary agitation. They forced groups like the London Corresponding Society to operate secretly, limiting their political effectiveness.

How did the Peterloo Massacre (1819) affect the radical movement?

It strengthened the conviction among radicals that peaceful petitioning alone could not achieve reform. Yet, the brutal repression also discouraged open radical activity for years, forcing reformers to reconsider their methods.

Who were the key figures behind the Great Reform Bill?

The Bill was drafted by Whig leaders including Earl Grey, Lord Durham, Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, and Lord Bessborough—all aristocrats who recognised the need for limited reform to preserve the political system.

What triggered the Great Reform Riots of 1831?

When the House of Lords rejected the Reform Bill, public frustration erupted into violent riots, especially in Bristol. These riots, combined with cholera outbreaks, heightened fears of revolution.

How did King William IV ensure the Reform Bill’s passage?

He threatened to create enough new Whig peers to outvote the Tory majority in the Lords. This threat forced many Tories to abstain, allowing the Bill to pass in 1832.

What were the main changes introduced by the 1832 Reform Act?

The Act granted representation to new industrial cities, abolished rotten boroughs, and extended the franchise to property-holding men in towns and counties. It doubled the electorate but maintained property qualifications.

Who benefited most from the 1832 reform?

The industrial middle classes gained political influence, while the working classes remained excluded. Aristocratic dominance persisted through alliances with wealthy landowners and farmers.

What limitations remained after 1832?

Voting was still public, corruption was rampant, and only about 7% of the population could vote. Women and the working poor remained entirely disenfranchised.

Why was the 1832 Reform Act politically significant despite its limits?

It proved that peaceful, legislative reform was possible without revolution. This precedent inspired later reform movements to pursue constitutional change rather than violent upheaval.

Why did the Radicals feel betrayed after the 1832 Reform Act?

They saw the Act as a pact between the aristocracy and the middle class to exclude workers from power. The Poor Man’s Guardian accused reformers of consolidating privilege instead of dismantling it.

What was the New Poor Law of 1834, and why did it anger workers?

It confined the poor to harsh workhouses where families were separated and living conditions were deliberately degrading. This inhumanity deepened class resentment and reinforced radical demands for political rights.

What were the six points of the People’s Charter (1838)?

Universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, removal of property qualifications for MPs, payment of MPs, secret ballot, and annual general elections. These points defined the political programme of the Chartist movement.

Who were William Lovett and Feargus O’Connor?

Lovett was a moderate London artisan and key author of the People’s Charter, advocating peaceful reform. O’Connor was a more militant leader who edited The Northern Star and inspired working-class activism across the North.

What divided the Chartist movement?

Chartists split between the “Moral Force” faction, which sought peaceful petitioning, and the “Physical Force” faction, which believed violence might be justified if reform was denied.

What was the outcome of the 1839 Chartist petition?

Signed by over a million people, it was overwhelmingly rejected by Parliament. This led to riots in Birmingham and Newport, and several leaders were imprisoned.

What were the “Plug Riots” of 1842?

After a second petition was rejected, workers launched a general strike, removing boiler plugs from factories to stop production. The protests were crushed, and many Chartists were arrested or transported.

Why did Chartism eventually decline after 1848?

Economic prosperity in the 1850s improved living standards, weakening working-class unity. The failure of the third petition and internal divisions also eroded the movement’s momentum.

What did the 1866 Reform Bill propose, and why was it criticised?

Introduced by Earl Russell, it proposed a modest extension of the vote to £7 householders, which excluded most workers. Critics saw it as elitist and insufficient, sparking mass agitation.

What role did the Reform League play in 1866–67?

The League mobilised huge demonstrations for universal male suffrage, showing the power of organised popular pressure. Its protests helped force Parliament to adopt a broader reform.

Why was Disraeli’s 1867 Reform Act called a “leap in the dark”?

Disraeli, a Conservative, unexpectedly expanded the electorate far more than planned, enfranchising nearly all urban male householders. It was uncertain how this new electorate would affect politics, hence the expression.

How did the Secret Ballot Act of 1872 change elections?

It introduced secret voting, ending bribery and intimidation associated with public ballots. This reform marked a crucial step toward modern democratic elections.

Why was the Elementary Education Act of 1870 politically important?

It recognised that an educated electorate was essential for responsible citizenship. By making schooling widely available, it linked education directly to democracy.

What was the impact of the Representation of the People Act of 1884?

It equalised voting qualifications between towns and counties, enfranchising rural labourers and small farmers. By 1885, about 60% of adult men could vote, marking a major expansion of democracy.

In what ways did Chartist ideas influence later reforms?

Although Chartism failed in its time, five of its six demands became law between 1858 and 1918. Its legacy lay in demonstrating the power of mass political organisation and inspiring future democratic advances.