Chapter 7 Cognition-Thinking

Personality, intelligence, probelem solving

Algorithm

step-by-step problem-solving formula.

Heuristic

mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

Planning fallacy

wherein people underestimate the time it will take to complete a future task, despite knowledge that previous tasks have generally taken longer than
planned.

Framing

Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed. (— as 25% fat or 75% lean?)

Trial and error

Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved

Working-backwards

begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.

concepts

category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences

Prototype

the best example or representation of a concept.

Gandhi

(Gandhi could be a prototype for the category of civil disobedience.)

Schema

a mental construct consisting of a collection of related concepts.

When a schema is activated, we automatically make assumptions about the person/object/situation.

Language

e is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another.

Lexicon

refers to the words of a given language.

Grammar

refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon

phoneme

e (e.g., the sounds “ah” vs. “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes.

semantics

refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

syntax

refers to the way words are organized into sentences

Functional fixedness

is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.

mental set

is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

anchoring bias

occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem.

confirmation bias

is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did.

Representative bias

describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you make a decision or judgment based on your perception of the similarity of the person or thing to your existing stereotypes and prior beliefs;

availability heuristic

is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.

Crystallized intelligence

Is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence.

Fluid intelligence

encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.

Robert Sternberg

triarchic theory of intelligence

-analytical

-creative

-practical

Practical intelligence

as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences.

Analytical intelligence

is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast.

Creative intelligence

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

Multiple Intelligences Theory

was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences

Emotional intelligence

encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways

intelligence quotient (IQ)

describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence

Standardization

means that the manner of administration, and interpretation of results is consistent.

Norming

involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups.

Flynn effect

refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last

representative sample

Is a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population.