Poli 367 Final Exam Definitions

1. individualism

Individualism in the ideological sense, particularly liberal individualism, emphasizes the primacy of individual freedom and autonomy from external constraints. Fascism, however, rejected this principle, condemning the "atomistic and alienating individualism" inherent in bourgeois culture and democratic systems. Fascist movements sought to overcome this perceived alienation by emphasizing a unifying communal creed focused on national traditions, myths, and cohesive unity, subordinating the self-interest of the individual to the collective body of the state. Modern non-liberal or communitarian creeds still posit political philosophies as antidotes to the "alleged atomistic individualism of modern society".

Wissenschaft

Wissenschaft is the German term for a body of knowledge, often translated loosely as "science," which in the context of classical modern ideologies was used to grant authority to ideological claims. Marxism, a major historical contender against liberalism and fascism, derived much of its appeal from claiming a highly sophisticated and wissenschaftlich interpretation of history and capitalism. This "scientific" approach provided a secular foundation for the prediction of socialism's eschatological inevitability, rooted in an understanding of society and economics. However, this intellectual sophistication ultimately failed to prevent the Marxist ideology from hardening into rigid dogma and justifying violent totalitarian regimes in practice.

3. teleological

A teleological concept or philosophy is a narrative interpretation of time that posits history or human development as progressing toward a certain predetermined goal or final outcome. Competing modern ideologies relied on such narratives; for example, communism offered a teleology promising an "inevitable socialist utopia" derived from purportedly fixed laws of history. Fascist thinkers like Ivan Ilyin, however, offered a distinct kind of anti-historical teleology: they rejected the idea of historical progress, substituting it with a politics of eternity where the nation is defined by eternal innocence and mythic cycles of struggle against a permanent enemy.

4. axiological

Axiological refers to the study of or claims relating to core values, principles, or notions of worth, justice, and morality. Ideology inherently consists of both claims about reality (facts) and emotive normative prescriptions (axioms) as to what is right or just. Fascism, specifically, was an ideological movement that rejected the "liberal-humanitarian values" of bourgeois society. Instead, it substituted its own core axiological claims, asserting that morality should be defined by devotion to the unifying national community, viewing this zealous ideological commitment as morally superior and self-righteous.

5. Dispensation

A dispensation, in a political or historical-theological context, refers to a prevailing order or system governing human affairs for a definite period, often carrying an implied historical justification. Ideologies often act as secular religions, providing guidance toward a desired future dispensation or new historical order, suggesting that humanity is advancing toward "higher and more benign forms of civilization". Fascism sought to launch a "third way" to modernity, or a new political dispensation, intended as a revolutionary transcendence of both prevailing capitalist liberalism and state socialism.

6. ecosystem engineering

Ecosystem engineering, also referred to as niche construction, is a strategic concept describing how a powerful state actively molds the international environment to support its own interests and domestic regime type. This process redirects the external "selective pressure" so that it favors the survival and flourishing of the state's own system (whether democratic or authoritarian) and handicaps rivals. Today, authoritarian powers like China and Russia engage in ecosystem engineering to eliminate the liberal bias from the international order, seeking to make the world safer for authoritarian capitalism and protecting their regimes from having to democratize.

7. identity politics

In the context of contemporary fascism and democratic debate, identity politics is a political maneuver that systematically undermines the standing of certain citizens by asserting that only specific groups belong to the "real people". Fascist-aligned movements often employ exclusionary identity politics, frequently based on ethnic criteria (nativism) or culture, which justifies their anti-democratic aggression as "anti-fascist" self-defense. However, the sources suggest that genuine identity politics, far from being inherently destructive, is often a necessary struggle for the actual enforcement of basic rights, such as the right not to be harassed or discriminated against, thereby claiming political status for previously marginalized groups. Populists thrive on exclusionary identity politics, using protests and conflicts to divide the polity and reinforce their own claims to be the people's unique representatives.

8. open liberalism

Open liberalism is the third historical stage of liberalism, emerging since the late 1970s as a hybrid of social liberalism and neoliberalism (free markets and small government). Its core principle is individual emancipation and autonomy, viewing traditional institutions and social norms as the chief threats to liberty, promoting hyper-globalization and the removal of cultural and national boundaries. This approach has been criticized for disproportionately rewarding a transnational, educated elite while alienating working and rural classes, thus fueling anti-liberal populism and contributing to the ideological polarization now threatening democracy.

9. constitutionalism

Constitutionalism refers to the fundamental structure of laws, norms, and practices that constrains government power and ensures political rights. It is related to the idea of constitutional democracy, which is a marriage of majority rule and individual rights, embodying the rule of law and constraints on the popular will. In the context of contemporary fascism, authoritarian regimes often maintain a veneer of constitutionalism—keeping nominally democratic institutions in place while simultaneously subverting their substance by packing courts or rewriting laws to secure a permanent advantage over opponents. Historically, constitutional precautions were sometimes adopted to filter and cushion against unconstrained popular will.

10. double secession

The double secession refers to two parallel phenomena of privileged and deprived groups withdrawing from a common political and civic life, thereby undermining democracy's promise. The first secession involves the most privileged plutocratic elites, who seek distance from common civic obligations by engaging in tax avoidance, establishing stateless financial entities, and retreating into economically homogenized enclaves. The other secession involves the increasing political disengagement and non-participation of citizens at the lower end of the income spectrum, who retreat into quiet despair after feeling systematically neglected by the political system, creating a political vacuum that reinforces polarization. This dual retreat aggravates social fragmentation and makes it harder to agree on who constitutes "the people".

11. liberal internationalism

Liberal internationalism is a grand strategy pursued by democratic great powers, historically the United States, aimed at engineering a favorable international environment to protect their own domestic regimes. This strategy involves buttressing other wealthy democracies through self-binding multilateral military, political, and economic institutions. The core goal is pragmatic: to ensure a state can remain internationally competitive while preserving its constitutional self-government, thereby minimizing the regime-power dilemma. However, the later stage of this strategy, open liberalism, which valued unrestricted openness and individual choice, ultimately caused internal polarization and social alienation, contributing to democracy’s current crisis.

12. egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is fundamentally related to the liberal tenet of equality, riding on people's deep desire for fairness and justice. It is understood as equal rights and equal respect, striving for a common life where people can treat one another as equals without deference, a core goal that contrasts sharply with the hierarchy of authoritarian or caste societies [43, 44, 180, 196n1]. In the context of the American Creed, the principles of individual freedom and egalitarianism are considered self-justifying values at the center of the democratic vision. Fascism, conversely, rejected "socialist leveling" and saw equality as a concept flowing from the "atomistic and alienating individualism" that characterized liberal democracy.

13. affective communication

Affective communication refers to types of emotional mobilization and persuasive messaging designed to influence attitudes and behavior, especially concerning ideology. Fascism actively engaged in this kind of communication by introducing a "carnival style of political activity" which involved masses in emotionally arousing ceremonies, rallies, marches, and speeches intended to evoke a "mass psychosis bordering on hysteria". Such spectacles fostered an uplifting spirit of togetherness and loyalty to the unifying national community. Today, fascist and authoritarian-populist movements continue to utilize emotional mobilization, leveraging technologies like radio and film, and later social media, to circumvent traditional media and rational discourse.

14. Big Lie

The concept of the Big Lie refers to the propagation of fictions that are so large and audacious they surpass easy doubt, thereby enabling authoritarian control. Tyranny is sustained when citizens willingly renounce the difference between what they want to hear and what is factually true, leading to the collapse of individual discernment and political discourse. In contemporary politics, this strategy operates in four modes: open hostility to verifiable reality, shamanistic repetition, open embrace of contradiction (magical thinking), and the imposition of misplaced faith in the leader. For modern tyrants like Vladimir Putin, the ability to create unifying fictions—such as the narrative of permanent external threats—allows them to generate real policy consequences despite their disregard for factuality.

15. romanticism

Romanticism is a cultural and intellectual movement, historically associated with celebrating emotion, spirituality, and a rejection of over-rationalism, which also inspired fascist thought. It is characterized by idealizing a lost, supposedly more "organic communal life of the past" and a "return to nature," contrasting sharply with the bureaucratic, rationalistic nature of modern industrial society. Fascist movements drew on this sentiment, calling for a spiritual revival and exalting vigor and dynamism to counteract the "decadent materialism" and "over-sensitiveness" of bourgeois culture. The Russian fascist philosopher Ivan Ilyin, for example, condemned the creation of the world as God yielding to a "romantic" impulse by making beings moved by sex, underscoring the fascist rejection of sensuality and emotional excess in favor of a purifying, violent devotion to the state.

16. solidarity

Solidarity refers to a sense of belonging, mutual obligation, and collective cohesion within a community, often expressed around shared national traditions, identity, and ideals. Fascism mobilized the masses around a communal creed intended to overcome the alienation and internal divisions (class antagonism and individualism) endemic to liberal society. This sense of belonging is a core aspect of any ideological commitment, reinforced by communal rites and mass political gatherings designed to inculcate shared values. However, this collective feeling can also fuel exclusionary identity politics and nationalism, where solidarity is fiercely directed toward the in-group and antagonistic toward outsiders.

17. “illiberal democracy”

“Illiberal democracy” is a term used by certain authoritarian and populist leaders, most notably Viktor Orbán of Hungary, to describe a regime that maintains a facade of popular rule (democracy) while actively restricting and rolling back liberal rights and institutions. This term is misleading because the political rights and basic checks and balances being attacked—such as freedom of speech, media pluralism, and minority protection—are constitutive of democracy itself, not merely supplementary liberal ideals. By employing this term, populists aim to appear as opponents of "liberalism" (often equated with unfettered capitalism and social permissiveness), while retaining the democratic legitimacy necessary for global acceptance and internal political dominance.

18. attunement

Attunement refers to a state of internal coherence, particularly where the individual's will and capacity ("I-will" and "I-can") are aligned and coincide, enabling self-control and effective action. In the context of political theory, this ideal level of self-mastery is considered a prerequisite for true political virtues. Fascist and ideological movements exploit a breakdown in this coherence or "attunement" within society, preferring instead a totalizing collective alignment that supersedes individual facts or reason. The fascist mode of ideological fixation demands a psychological subjugation where factual claims contradictory to the prevailing creed are strongly resisted and effectively fail to register.

19. “austerity” vs “warmth”

Austerity refers specifically to the harsh economic belt-tightening measures implemented across Southern Europe following the Eurocrisis. The resulting social and financial alienation created a deep cleavage, which populist parties successfully exploited by framing the political conflict as "economic austerity versus anti-austerity". The counter-term, warmth, is used to describe the metaphorical feeling of economic security and shared prosperity that characterized mid-twentieth-century American society, marked by shrinking economic inequality. Fascist and authoritarian movements often exploit the yearning for this lost social "warmth" or communal solidarity, promising an escape from the cold, divisive individualism and economic precarity associated with contemporary open liberalism.

20. authoritarian capitalism

Authoritarian capitalism describes a modern regime that embraces market economics for wealth generation while maintaining tight political control under a single party or leader. This economic system is typically characterized as a state-party-nationalistic-ruled market intended to ensure the ruling party's dominance and maintain political stability. Contemporary examples include China and Russia, which use their economic model and political stability to challenge the liberal democratic consensus, asserting an alternative, illiberal path to modernization and great power status.

21. principle of succession

The principle of succession is the fundamental mechanism that ensures the continuity and durability of a state by regulating the transition of authority from one ruler or administration to the next. In a democracy, this principle is institutionalized through periodic free elections, ensuring that political continuity endures regardless of the individual leader. Authoritarian and fascist regimes, however, systematically destroy this principle; for instance, the fascist philosopher Ivan Ilyin argued that the true Russian state required a mystical redeemer whose eternal role superseded any orderly constitutional mechanism for succession. By undermining the principle of succession, a regime like Putin's creates a perpetual crisis that must be managed by claiming that eternal external threats necessitate the indefinite rule of the current, irreplaceable leader.

22. gnosticism

Gnosticism generally refers to a philosophical or religious belief system characterized by a fundamental dualism, positing that a spiritual or true reality is concealed behind the flawed, visible world. This leads to an ideological posture that demands adherents actively join a cosmic struggle to purge the world of its perceived evil or material corruption. This concept was attractive to anti-rationalist, proto-fascist, and fascist thinkers who rejected the liberal bourgeois emphasis on material well-being and empirical facts, preferring a politics defined by spiritual mission and the zealous pursuit of a total, hidden Truth. They sought to invert traditional values by channeling this spiritual longing into a righteous, even violent, political project aimed at destroying the flawed, liberal world.

23. politics of eternity

The politics of eternity is a narrative framework used by authoritarian and populist leaders that replaces historical time with a mythic, cyclical vision of the past. This framework places the nation at the center of an endless struggle against timeless external threats, framing every current event as just one more instance of an eternal confrontation. This concept, exported by Russia and rooted in the ideas of Ivan Ilyin, asserts a prehistorical innocence for the nation and its leader, thereby justifying arbitrary rule, oppression, and aggression as necessary self-defense against perpetual enemies. The logic of eternity makes genuine historical reflection and finding solutions to contemporary problems seem impossible or even disloyal.

24. politics of inevitability

The politics of inevitability is a narrative of time holding that history progresses automatically toward a predetermined, known, and usually positive outcome, such as the inevitable global triumph of liberal democracy and prosperity. This narrative promotes complacency because citizens assume that progress is guaranteed regardless of their actions and that meaningful alternatives do not exist. Fascism (the politics of eternity) arises precisely when this myth of inevitability is shattered by a major crisis, causing citizens to trade their faith in an automatically advancing future for a fearful sense of time repeating itself in endless cycles of victimhood and external threats.

25. inner freedom

The politics of inevitability is a narrative of time holding that history progresses automatically toward a predetermined, known, and usually positive outcome, such as the inevitable global triumph of liberal democracy and prosperity. This narrative promotes complacency because citizens assume that progress is guaranteed regardless of their actions and that meaningful alternatives do not exist. Fascism (the politics of eternity) arises precisely when this myth of inevitability is shattered by a major crisis, causing citizens to trade their faith in an automatically advancing future for a fearful sense of time repeating itself in endless cycles of victimhood and external threats.

26. sadopopulism

Sadopopulism is a term used to describe a form of populist governance where policies are explicitly designed to inflict economic or social pain, particularly on the most vulnerable parts of the leader's own electorate. This governance model converts citizen suffering into political meaning and subsequently uses that meaning to justify more pain, creating a negative-sum game where the people trade the prospect of a better future for a vision of valiant defense of national innocence. A sadopopulist leader, such as Donald Trump, employs policies like regressive taxation and health care reductions, causing voters who are suffering from engineered inequality and health crises to fantasize that their chosen leader will hurt enemies (such as racial minorities or liberals) even more.

27. fable of the wise nation

The fable of the wise nation is a narrative framework, particularly prominent in post-imperial Europe, which falsely suggests that a country has long existed as a self-sufficient nation-state and has wisely learned from the catastrophe of war to choose peace and prosperity. This myth asserts that nations chose to enter the European project as a matter of national choice rather than existential necessity after the collapse of their empires. For example, by reciting this fable, Europeans praise themselves for choosing European integration while overlooking the fact that they were driven toward it by structural forces following the failure of empire. This false historical narrative leaves European states vulnerable to political fiction and dissolution, creating an opening for a politics of eternity.

28. norm-breaking

Norm-breaking is the act of violating uncodified rules or established conventions that maintain the democratic "game" or political consensus, even if the action respects the strict letter of the law. In the context of contemporary political crisis, not all norm-breaking is the same: it can be undertaken by authoritarian-populists to destroy institutions and secure permanent partisan advantage (constitutional hardball), or it can be undertaken by citizens or the opposition to serve or even deepen democracy itself. For instance, democratic politics might positively require upsetting the game, such as through democratic disobedience, which is warranted when existing rules violate core principles of political freedom and equality.

29. democratic uncertainty

Democratic uncertainty refers to the crucial principle that political outcomes, especially elections, must be fundamentally uncertain in advance. This concept is institutionalized in a working democracy, meaning procedures must enable losers to have a reasonable hope of winning next time, ensuring that victory and loss are not predetermined. If results are certain, democracy has effectively disappeared in favor of authoritarianism. This uncertainty is beneficial because it acts as a primary incentive for political engagement and participation; thus, uncertainty for winners is the same as hope for losers. Authoritarian regimes strive to eliminate this uncertainty, often by rigging the political process to guarantee perpetual dominance.

30. soft power

Soft power refers to a country's capacity to induce other nations to desire the same outcomes that it desires, meaning they want to be like that country. The democratic great powers, historically led by the United States, have cultivated soft power, leading elites and publics in other countries to view democracy as normal and desirable, reinforcing the domestic credibility of the democratic great power's own regime. Conversely, authoritarian great powers, such as China and Russia, also work to build and use soft power to undermine democracy and promote autocracy in other countries. In the context of Russia, the use of soft power to advance its political agenda is part of its "hybrid warfare" strategy.

31. political guardrails

Political guardrails refer to unwritten democratic norms, customs, and shared codes of conduct that supplement formal constitutional rules. These guardrails are essential to the healthy functioning of a democracy, preventing day-to-day political competition from escalating into a ruinous, no-holds-barred conflict. The two most basic of these norms in American politics have been mutual toleration and institutional forbearance. When these unwritten rules weaken, often due to extreme partisan polarization, they cease to function as bulwarks of democracy, and the political system risks being subverted from within by elected autocrats.

32. mutual toleration

Mutual toleration is an essential democratic norm defined as the understanding that competing political parties accept one another as legitimate rivals. It requires recognizing rivals as decent, patriotic, and law-abiding citizens who respect the constitution, even if one strongly dislikes their political positions. When norms of mutual toleration are weak, politicians fear their rivals being elected and are more tempted to use any means necessary to defeat them, thereby justifying authoritarian measures. The erosion of this norm is a critical precursor to democratic breakdown, as seen in historical cases like the Spanish Republic in the 1930s.

33. (institutional) forbearance

Institutional forbearance is a fundamental unwritten democratic norm emphasizing patient self-control and restraint in deploying one's institutional prerogatives. It means avoiding actions that, while technically legal and respecting the letter of the law, clearly violate the spirit of the constitution or established custom. Forbearance is crucial for a system of checks and balances to function, as unchecked power leads to constitutional hardball, a form of institutional combat aimed at permanently defeating partisan rivals. A historical American norm of forbearance, such as the two-term limit for presidents before it was codified, helped sustain American democracy for most of the twentieth century.

34. democratic uncertainty

Democratic uncertainty refers to the fundamental principle that political outcomes, especially elections, must be uncertain in advance. Democracy is defined as a system of "institutionalized uncertainty" where political parties generally lose elections and concede defeat because procedures enable losers to have a reasonable hope of winning next time. This uncertainty for winners is the same as hope for losers, and it serves as a primary incentive for political engagement. Authoritarian regimes, including contemporary populist ones, actively undermine this uncertainty through means like voter suppression, gerrymandering, or subverting state institutions to render politics predictable.

35. gatekeeping

Gatekeeping refers primarily to the "filtration" role played by political elites and parties, specifically by screening out politicians who pose a threat to democracy or are otherwise unfit for office. Historically, this function was evident in mechanisms like party conventions in American politics, which served to keep demonstrably unfit figures off the ballot and maintain institutional stability. The essence of effective gatekeeping requires political leaders to heed early warning signs, resisting fear or opportunism, and making a concerted effort to isolate and defeat extremists, often by refusing alliances or keeping them off mainstream party tickets. The introduction of systems like binding primaries weakened this gatekeeping function, potentially opening the democratic process to dangerous outsiders.

36. schizofascism

Schizofascism is a new political maneuver characteristic of contemporary Russian political discourse, defined by the act of actual fascists calling their political opponents "fascists". This strategy exploits the political history where "fascism" became synonymous with the anti-Russian, Western enemy (post-World War II Soviet framing). By employing this term against their adversaries—such as democratic movements in Ukraine—the Russian regime asserts its own eternal innocence and justifies its anti-democratic aggression as "anti-fascist" self-defense, thereby exporting a dangerously contradictory political fiction.

37. res gestae

Res gestae is a Latin term referring to deeds and events that are considered historical and that encapsulate a political community's achievements or identity. Philosophically, the term captures the enduring consequence of past actions (gerere) that are continuously carried forward and supported in the present, distinguishing them from fleeting or individual acts. In the Roman context, res gestae was central to the idea of a political body (res publica) and specifically referred to the historical deeds originating from the foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), thereby linking the past to the foundation and perpetuation of Roman freedom and statehood.

38. identity politics

Identity politics refers to political movements emphasizing group affiliation, which in the context of contemporary fascism often manifests as exclusionary identity politics used by populists. Populists employ this strategy to assert that only certain groups, usually defined ethnically or religiously, belong to the "real people," thereby systematically undermining the standing of immigrants or minorities. Conversely, in a democratic context, genuine identity politics can be understood as a necessary struggle for the enforcement of basic rights, such as the right not to be discriminated against, thereby overcoming historical exclusions based on group characteristics. This distinction is critical because right-wing populists utilize exclusionary identity politics specifically to divide the polity and reinforce their claim to be the authentic representatives of the nation.

39. virtues

Virtues refer to established qualities or desirable behaviors that function as a manual for proper human conduct in a complex social world. Historically, liberal thinkers promoted civic virtues such as benevolence, social responsibility, and dedication to the common good. In their updated ideology, modern conservatives focus on stressing traditional virtues related to family, community, and adherence to law and order. In a functioning democracy, specific procedural virtues like mutual toleration and institutional forbearance are crucial shared codes of conduct necessary for institutions to flourish and prevent political competition from devolving into constitutional hardball.

40. technocracy

Technocracy refers to a mindset in which politics is understood solely as a series of problems that require a singular, correct solution delivered by experts. This approach is often criticized as betraying democratic principles, as seen in schemes like lottocracy, because it disregards political compromise and deliberation. In contemporary regimes, this can lead to "techno-populism," where leaders employ highly educated experts in key positions while simultaneously appealing to the people's wisdom. Technocracy and populism, though seemingly opposed, are structurally similar because both are anti-pluralist, rejecting the idea that political solutions are debatable or derived from conflicting perspectives.

41. the “real people”

Populism's core claim is to speak exclusively for the "real people" or "silent majority," a concept that embodies a fictional, homogeneous, and morally unified entity existing outside formal democratic procedures. This assertion is distinctly anti-pluralist because it immediately implies that political opponents are illegitimate, corrupt, or second-rate citizens who are fundamentally opposed to the national good. Populists frequently use this concept to justify their rule, asserting that democracy requires the unique representative (the leader) to ignore official election results or disregard critical civil society voices in favor of this symbolic national substance. For example, figures like Donald Trump used the phrase "real people" to legitimize his mandate while dismissing critics as "un-American".

42. hard borders of democracy

This term refers to nonnegotiable boundaries or fundamental principles that must be preserved in order for a political system to maintain its democratic character. The primary constraint is the core requirement that no political actor, regardless of electoral success, can systematically deny the status of particular citizens as free and equal members of the polity. This imperative is fundamentally tied to the indispensable democratic principle of equality. When authoritarians or populists violate this hard border—through discriminatory rhetoric, policies, or systemic attacks on minority groups—the democratic "game" is considered destroyed, often justifying democratic disobedience as a necessary act of self-defense.

43. intermediary institutions

These are formal and informal structures, primarily political parties and a free press (or professional media), deemed essential as "critical infrastructure" for the proper functioning of representative democracy. They are crucial because they enhance basic political rights by providing the mechanisms necessary for citizens to associate, mobilize, and effectively articulate their views in the public sphere. These institutions perform a vital democratic function by constructing and organizing competing perspectives—or "visions of divisions"—which allows for orderly conflict and continuous policy contestation. Populists relentlessly attack intermediary institutions, arguing they form a corrupt cartel of elites that distorts the voice of the authentic people, thereby seeking to establish a direct, unmediated relationship between the leader and the populace.

44. faction

In the context of the course, faction refers to an organized political group, often perceived negatively, whose interests conflict with the public good. James Madison influentially defined a faction as a number of citizens, amounting to either a majority or a minority, who are united by a common interest or impulse that is detrimental to the rights of other citizens or the permanent interests of the community. In the early American republic, political leaders viewed factions with intense suspicion, often fearing them as internal conspiracies bound to destroy the fragile civic cohesion of the polity. This fear frequently led founders like George Washington to conflate the rising existence of competitive political parties with the destructive potential of factions.

45. oligarchy

Oligarchy denotes a form of rule by a wealthy few (plutocrats) motivated by the relentless accumulation of wealth (pleonexia), who use their immense financial power to control and distort the political process. In contemporary democratic settings, oligarchy creates conditions where elites enjoy a functional "secession" from common civic life, effectively operating in a different political universe from the majority. This consolidation of wealth and power makes the American system especially vulnerable to authoritarian trends, as oligarchic influence captures political parties and funds policies (like regressive tax cuts) that maximize their gains, often facilitating a populist politics that channels public anger toward racial or cultural enemies rather than economic elites.

46. Eurasian imperialism

Eurasian imperialism refers to Russia's political ambition to dominate and transform Europe, specifically by replacing the system of European integration with an order centered around Russia. This concept is seen as an alternative to European integration and has roots in the fascist thought of the 1930s. Proponents of Eurasianism, such as those associated with the Izborsk Club, have revived or remade Nazi ideas for Russian purposes, aiming to create a Eurasian economic and political space dominated by Russia, drawing in former Soviet republics and potentially collapsing the European Union. Russia's leadership views its Eurasian project as necessary for the survival of the Russian state, believing that a non-Eurasian world is hostile to Russia. This imperial project is characterized by an explicit rejection of law and democracy in favor of a political system based on mystical unity and cultural purity.

47. natality

Natality is a philosophical concept introduced by Hannah Arendt that refers to the capacity for beginning something new inherent in every human birth. In the context of political freedom, man is free precisely because he is a beginning, and the act of starting something novel coincides with the experience of freedom. Each person's coming into the world reaffirms this initial beginning, meaning freedom is not something possessed but is equated with human existence itself. The spontaneous action of beginning breaks into the world as an "infinite improbability," thus functioning as a potential source of "miracles" that can interrupt automatic, often ruinous, social or historical processes.

48. pluralism

Pluralism is a fundamental tenet of democracy, contrasting with the homogeneity sought by populists. Democracy requires pluralism and the recognition that citizens are irreducibly diverse and must find fair terms of living together as free and equal individuals. Populism is inherently antipluralist, asserting a morally pure and fully unified people against supposedly corrupt elites. In the context of democracy's critical infrastructure, pluralism must be fostered both externally (a range of competing parties and media) and internally (diversity of viewpoints within single institutions) to ensure open political discourse. The denial of pluralism essentially denies the status of fellow citizens as free and equal members of the polity.

49. democracy

Democracy in the context of contemporary fascism is fundamentally defined as a marriage of majority rule and individual rights, embodying political liberty, equality, and institutionalized uncertainty. It requires that the majority cannot violate the rights of minority groups and that all officials' power is ultimately accountable to the popular will. Populism poses a danger to democracy because it is a "degraded form of democracy" that attempts to weaken or eliminate democratic institutions (such as free speech, media pluralism, and checks and balances) in the name of serving a fictional, unified "real people". The long-term health of democracy relies on unspoken procedural norms, particularly mutual toleration and institutional forbearance, which prevent partisan competition from destroying the system.

50. genealogy

Genealogy (or a return to first principles, riduzione verso il principio) is presented as a crucial intellectual method for clarifying democracy's fundamental rules and purposes, especially during moments of crisis. To counter the threats posed by populism and authoritarianism, it is necessary to reexamine the animating principles—liberty, equality, and uncertainty—behind democratic institutions. By thinking historically and understanding the trajectory of ideologies and norms, genealogy allows for the critique and reconstruction of the political system, helping citizens avoid narratives that deny historical reality, such as the politics of inevitability and eternity.

51. interest group liberalism

Interest group liberalism is a political approach associated with the period after World War II, which involves groups competing to influence the state and achieve outcomes favourable to their collective interests. Liberal democracy itself is characterized by the tension between freedom and equality, where the freedom to form associations and exert political expression (like interest groups) undermines the goal of equal influence on state matters. This phenomenon exacerbates inequality because groups with greater resources or better arguments often achieve more influence in collective decision-making. In the context of contemporary concerns, this system is criticized because the most affluent groups and individuals effectively acquire greater influence than others, translating economic power into political outcomes, often leading to a form of oligarchy.

52. hyper-individualism

Hyper-individualism is a characteristic trait promoted by open liberalism, the modern phase of the ideology dominant since the late 1970s. This form of liberalism views traditional institutions and social norms as the chief threats to individual emancipation and autonomy, stressing constant personal expression and individual self-development. It is a variant of expressive individualism that prizes unencumbered personal movement, choice, and change in all areas of life. This emphasis on infinite choice has been criticized for penalizing long-term commitment and creating perpetual anxiety, particularly for those who are alienated from the liberal elite culture and prefer stability and community.

53. populism

Populism is primarily defined not by mere criticism of elites, but by antipluralism and the moralistic claim to represent the entire "real people" against a corrupt elite. Populists often refer to a homogenous and morally pure collective entity existing outside of formal democratic procedures, dismissing their opponents as illegitimate enemies who do not belong to the "real people". When in power, populists govern according to this logic, seeking to occupy the state apparatus, engage in mass clientelism, and suppress civil society, viewing these actions as justified implementations of the authentic popular will. Populism is seen as a "degraded form of democracy" that damages basic political rights and constitutional norms (often misleadingly labeled "illiberal democracy").

54. egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is closely related to the liberal principle of equality, which is one of the three vital founding principles of democracy, alongside liberty and uncertainty. The American Creed centers on principles of individual freedom and egalitarianism as self-justifying values. Philosophically, egalitarianism involves the quest for both equal political rights and social equality, striving for a common life where people can treat one another as equals without deference, a condition that contrasts starkly with hierarchical caste societies. However, extreme partisan polarization, often fueled by tensions over race and culture, erodes this foundational value, making it harder for citizens to treat one another as free and equal members of the polity.