3.2.1 Approaches in Psychology

The Behaviourist Approach

learning takes place through the processes of classical and operant conditioning

The Behaviourist Approach - key assumptions

- born as blank slates

- all behaviour learned through experience

- only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured

- ignores mental processes of the mind; too vague

The Behaviourist Approach - stimulus generalisation

once conditioned, they will respond in the same way to other stimuli similar to the CS

The Behaviourist Approach - extinction

if the CS is presented a few times without the UCS, it eventually stops producing the CR

The Behaviourist Approach - spontaneous recovery

even though the CR appears to have been extinguished, it my sometimes reappear at a later time

The Behaviourist Approach - classical conditioning (PAVLOV)

learning through association - it is when (e.g. a food) is consistently associated with another stimulus (e.g. a bell) until the new stimulus eventually produces the original response e.g salivation

The Behaviourist Approach - operant conditioning

SKINNER suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment

- behaviour is shaped by its consequences

The Behaviourist Approach - operant conditioning (consequences of behaviour)

positive reinforcement:

receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed - when you gain something as a consequence e.g a sticker is given when answering a question right

negative reinforcement:

doing something that avoids something unpleasant e.g. feeding a baby so that it stops crying and you can go to sleep

punishment:

unpleasant consequence of behaviour e.g given a detention

positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of that behaviour will be repeated. punishment decreases the likelihood.

The Behaviourist Approach - SKINNER'S STUDY

- conducted experiments with rats and sometimes pigeons in specifically designed cages called 'SKINNER BOXES'

- every time the rat activated the lever, (or pecked a disc - pigeon) within the box, it was rewarded with a food pellet

- thus the animal would continue this behaviour

also showed that pigeons and rats could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus e.g an electric shock

The Behaviourist Approach - continuous reinforcement

reinforcing every time a desirable behaviour is performed - most effective in establishing a particular response

The Behaviourist Approach - partial reinforcement

reinforcing every nth time the behaviour is shown - most effective in maintaining behaviour and avoiding extinction

The Behaviourist Approach - determinism

- proposes all behaviour has a cause - predictable

- free will is an illusion and our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces where we have no control over

this approach is environmentally deterministic; behaviour is determined by environment thus ignores influence of free will.

Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach - based on exp. method

P: research supporting is based on the experimental method

E: Skinner's use of the Skinner box allowed him to manipulate the IV and see effects on DV whilst using controlled conditions and eliminate extraneous variables

E: strength as it allows us to establish a cause+effect relationship (where the change in IV really changes the DV). research is objective as it's measuring observable behaviour + high control = easier to replicate

L: however, conducted in lab setting therefore lacks eco val - unclear if this is reflective of real life.

Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach - real life app.

P: classical + operant conditioning have led to real life app.

E: token economy systems have been successfully used in prisons which reward good behaviour for privileges (operant). Classical has been used to develop treatments to overcome phobias e.g systematic desensitisation (works by stopping the anxiety response (CR) that is associated with the feared objects (CS)

E: approach can be used to better lives of people in society and improve environment in institutions

L: highlights the psychological value of the behaviourist approach

Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach - based on animals

P: mainly based on research with animals

E: referred to as 'Anthropomorphism' where the findings of animal behaviour is applied to humans. thus this may not tell us much about human behaviour

E: problem - humans have conscious thoughts and insights to their behaviour unlike animals; findings like Skinner's can't be generalised to humans. other approaches that take into mental processes e.g. cognitive approach, can explain human behaviour better

L: criticised for being environmentally deterministic; sees all behaviour is determined by environ. and ignores influence of free will, therefore is a limited explanation

Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach - unethical

P: use of animals - ethical guidelines broken

E: BPS guidelines (protection from harm) was broken - Skinner's box, animals were under stressful conditions e.g electrical shocks

E: animals under stress react differently in experimental conditions compared to if they were relaxed. can't be sure that this type of learning takes place in a natural environ. Plus, humans are much more reactive to cues from experimenter - issues around generalisation to human behaviour

L: offers a limited explanation in explaining human behaviour thus lacks ex. val.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating (indirectly) and by being rewarded or punished (directly)

we observe consequences of our own actions and others which influence social behaviour

Social Learning Theory - assumptions

- agrees w/ the behaviourist approach that behaviour is much learned through experience

- takes into account the important cognitive and mental process that occur between stimulus and response

STIMULUS ---> cognitive processes ---> RESPONSE

SLT - mediational processes definition

don't automatically observe model's behaviour + imitate - there are internal processes that occur (mediational)

- determine whether the behaviour is learned or not (ARMM)

SLT - mediational processes

A: ATTENTION

- must be noticed to be imitated

R: RETENTION

- behaviour is not always noticed but is remembered; refers to how well it's remembered, a memory of it needs to be formed

M: MOTOR REPRODUCTION

- ability of the observer to reproduce the behaviour

M: MOTIVATION

- the will to try perform the behaviour, influenced by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished (if rewarded, behaviour is more likely to be imitated

SLT - key aspects (MIVI)

MI: MODELLING + IMITATION

- a role model carries out a behaviour/attitude (e.g aggression) so this model can be a live model e.g. parent that provide examples of these behaviours which is imitated (copied)

V: VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT

- learning through observation of consequences of other's behaviour

- behaviour is more likely to be imitated if rewarded

- suggest that individuals do not need to directly experience rewards/punishments to learn

I: IDENTIFICATION

- to which extent a person relates to a model and thinks they'll experience the same outcomes as them

- more likely to identify with people the same age/gender

SLT - Bandura (1961)

aim:

to investigate if behaviour (aggression) can be learned through observations of models

procedure:

- sample = 3-5 year olds (72 children, half boys and girls)

- half of children watched adult model play with Bobo doll aggressively + half watched model play gently

- placed in a room full of toys and Bobo doll

findings:

- children who observed aggressive behaviour = carried out physical and verbal aggression toward the doll

- children who observed gentle behaviour = displayed no aggression

- children more likely to imitate if model was the same gender

SLT - Bandura and Walters

procedure:

- showed children videos of adults behaviour being aggressive

1) adults rewarded for behaviour

2) adults punished

3) no consequence

findings:

children who saw the model being rewarded were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour + show higher levels of aggression in their own play

SLT evaluation - research support modelling + imitation

P: research to support

E: Bandura conducted a study [state findings of study]

E: support SLT - SL can take place through observing role models as the children were imitating behaviour observed. findings: if model is more similar to child, they're more likely to identify therefore good explanation

L: however, children may have been aware (demand characteristics) - artificial setting therefore just hit the doll. not true behaviour, decr. int. val. --> research offers little support for SLT

SLT evaluation - real life app.

P: real life app in helping the development of more effective health campaigns

E: to maximise effectiveness, campaigns have tried to match the character that models desired behaviour w/ target audience (w/ physical attributes/attitudes/behaviours). research has found that anti-alcohol campaigns have been most effective when similarity to role model was increased.

E: shows aspects of the theory - plays an important role in whether learning takes place or not therefore influencing behaviour. helps develop successful health campaigns --> helps economy + reduce stress on NHS + decr. unhealthy behaviour

L: shows how psychological research can have beneficial impacts on the economy

SLT evaluation - fails to take into account other approaches/explanation

P: criticised for failing to take into account other approaches

E: argues that behaviour is a sole consequence of SL, this means it doesn't consider to role other factors play in influencing behaviour. e.g doesn't include details of biological influences + in Bandura's study, boys are more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics

E: suggests that other factors other than SL + the increase in behaviours in the boys may have been due to hormonal factors such as testosterone levels

L: limited approach and incomplete explanation - fails to acknowledge any other factors

SLT evaluation - better explanation than behaviourist approach

P: better explanation than the behaviourist approach

E: SLT takes into account to cognitive factors involved in learning but the behav. app. argues that all behaviour is a result of op + class conditioning only

E: relying on the behav. app.l is problematic - believed that humans store info about the behaviour of others use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to do so (SLT takes this into account) . Therefore argued, less deterministic, than behav. app. ; doesn't suggest behav. is determined by environ. therefore acknowledges free will in how be behave

L: despite weaknesses of SLT, it provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning than behav. app. therefore SLT contributes more to our understanding of human behaviour

The Cognitive Approach - definitions of schema and inference

inference:

process where cognitive psychology draws conclusions about the way mental processes work on the basis of observed behaviour

schema:

a 'package' of beliefs and expectations on a topic that comes from prior experience. they act as a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information

- schemas affect behaviour

- as we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and complex through experience

The Cognitive Approach - assimilation

adding new information on to an existing schema

The Cognitive Approach - accomodation

when new information changes our understanding so we then create a new schema

The Cognitive Approach - pros and cons of schemas

pros:

- act as mental shortcuts that help process large amounts of information and fill in gaps

- help make sense of new info

cons:

- may distort interpretations when something doesn't fit our pre-existing schema

- can cause errors in processing and retrieving info e.g EWT, and stereotypes

The Cognitive Approach - cognitive neuroscience

the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes

Paul Broca had identified how damage in an area in the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production

in the last 20 years, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis on mental processes

The Cognitive Approach - cognitive neuroscience application

- neuroimaging techniques (MRI + PET) helps show parts of the brain that are active when brain is doing certain tasks

- scanning techniques that proves useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders (e.g link between OCD and the para hippocampal gyrus)

---> this is useful as it means that these disorders can be better understood and interventions/treatments can be created to support these individuals.

- imaging techniques have been used to study the effect of normal ageing of the brain or to observe the effects of strokes on the brain

The Cognitive Approach - key assumptions

thoughts act as meditational processes between stimulus and behavioural response --> thoughts influence our behaviour

- essential that we look at mental processes that occur - if we don't it is an incomplete explanation

STIMULUS --> THINKING --> RESPONSE (BEHAVIOUR)

(PSYCHOPATHOLOGY)

- area of depression

- assume disorders i.e depression is linked to faulty thinking processes; irrational thoughts + beliefs

mental processes can be regarded as information processing

- cognitive psychologist use theoretical models to represent these internal processes - changed, updated in the face of new evidence

- informational processing approach!

(MEMORY)

- models of memory follow an informational processing approach

- e.g MSM, WMM,

- refers to how info is stored and processed, and encoded

the mind can be viewed as a computer

- human mind explained with a computer analogy

- similarities in how info is processed

- brain is seen as central processing unit; codes info into usable format and stores it

(AI)

- linked to the development of AI and thinking machines

internal mental processes can and should be investigated scientifically

- should be studied e.g. perception. memory etc

- studies it indirectly by inferring what is going on from evidence gathered

- use lab experiments to investigate behaviour

(COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - AREA IN MEMORY)

- experiments have shown people can only remember 5-9 items on a memory test (capacity of STM)

Cognitive Approach evaluation - highly controlled

P: highly controlled and rigorous methods used to investigate assumptions

E: research investigating uses highly controlled lab exps. that enable inference for cognitive processes

E: allows objective data to be produced and the high controls meant there is a possibility to replicate to test reliability. focuses on exp methods therefore means cog app helped scientific status of psych = greater credibility

L: BUT exp studies often carried our with artificial stimuli e.g memory tests that lack mundane realism. lowers ext. val. and casts doubt on whether cog. app is trult representative of behaviour

Cognitive Approach evaluation - irl

P: has irl application despite weakness

E: cognitive neuroscience has helped to understand the neurological basis of mental health disorders. led to the development of treatments such as CBT therapy for

depression. computer analogy = cognitive psychology has made important contributions artificial intelligence

E: benefited society across a range of areas, e.g. health

and technology by improving the lives of individuals suffering with depression.

L: highlights the psychological value of the cognitive approach.

Cognitive Approach evaluation - comparing the human mind to a computer is not a good analogy

P: unsophisticated analogy

E: focus mainly on the logical aspects of cognitive processing and less on the emotional + social aspects that also affect thinking. e.g human memory has been shown to be affected by emotional factors such as anxiety which is ignored in the cognitive approach.

E: does not recognise how much more complex

humans are than machines

L: suffers with machine reductionism by ignoring the

influence other factors have on our thinking; weakens the validity - limited and incomplete explanation.

Cognitive Approach evaluation - less determinist

P: less determinist than other approaches

E: recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know but that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus

E:offers a logical compromise in suggesting that our thoughts are 'freely' chosen only within the limits of our knowledge and experience.

L: better approach because it takes into account that we have a choice and free-will to think of how to respond to a stimulus rather than completely being controlled by environment.

The Biological Approach

An approach that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body on our behaviour e.g genetic inheritance and neural function.

The Biological Approach - how to understand behaviour

- must look into biological structures and processes e.g genes, neurochemistry and nervous system

- an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour

The Biological Approach - twin studies

Twin studies are used to see if certain behaviours are inherited by comparing concordance rates between identical (MZ) and non-identical twins (DZ)

MZ: monozygotic (share 100% of genes)

DZ: dizygotic (share 50% of genes)

The Biological Approach - concordance rate definition

rate of probability that 2 people with shared genes will develop the same behaviour/disorder

if behaviour is inherited/genetic, you would expect to see a higher concordance rate the closer the degree of relatedness is.

The Biological Approach - adoption studies

Adoption studies are much better at studying the effects of nurture (upbringing)

They enable us to see the influence of nature vs nurture

- positive correlation between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and bio. parents = genetic

- positive correlation between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and adopted family = environmental effect

The Biological Approach - genetic basis of behaviour

our genetic inheritance comes from our parents - we have 50% of mother's genes and 50% of father's.

this explains why we may share both physical and psychological characteristics with our parents.

genes contain the blueprint for genetic characteristics

how the genes are developed/expressed depends on the interaction between nature and nurture.

The Biological Approach - genotype and phenotype

genotype

the genetic makeup that is written in the DNA of an individual's cells

phenotype

the physical appearance of that genotype in the individual which is determined by the genes - it is the combination of genes and the environment.

The Biological Approach - genes

genes carry the instruction for a particular characteristic but how this characteristic develops partly depends on the interaction of the genes with other genes, and the environment

The Biological Approach - evolution

individuals need to compete for resources (food) and any inherited trait that increases reproductive success e.g fitness iss elected, and will be passed onto offspring

--> NATURAL SELECTION

successful traits become more widespread in the population; any traits unsuited for the environment will die out.

The Biological Approach - evolution and behaviour

individuals within a species will naturally differ from another in their characteristics/behaviour, and some is inherited.

those who have adapted characteristics and are more likely to survive and reproduce thus behaviours will pass on

behaviours become more widespread thus these will be passed on to increase chances of survival

Biological Approach evaluation - irl

P: has real life application

E: increased understanding of the bio. processes in the brain has left to dev. of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illnesses e.g depression

E: means sufferers are able to manage their condition and live relatively well , reducing burden on NHS

L: highlights the psychological value - positive impact for soc

Biological Approach evaluation - scientific

P: uses scientific measures

E: use of PET and ECG scans are helpful insight to the influence of behaviour

E: provides us with objective data that is free from bias

L: beneficial - improves rep + credibility of psych

Biological Approach evaluation - ignores influence of environment

P: ignores influence of environmental factors

E: Twins and family all have genetic similarities + argues they should behave similarly on a genetic basis but it ignores environmental conditions

E: weakness - can't explain why MZ does not have a 100% concordance rate, suggesting that environmental factors play a role

L: offers incomplete and limited explanation that underestimates the complexity of human behaviour

Biological Approach evaluation - determinist

P: has a determinist view on behaviour

E: says human behaviour is governed by internal causes e.g genetics which we have no control over

E: ignores influence of free will and that we often have the choice in how we behave. means criminal can't be held accountable for their actions as their behaviour is a consequence of their genes - invalidates victims and offers excuses

L: BUT it has pos. implications for soc. - able to discover genetic predispositions for mental health problems. thus people can be supported with interventions quicker, improving QoL. lots of pos. and neg. implications that need to be taken into account when using it to explain behaviour

The Psychodynamic Approach - key assumptions

- events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives that shape personality

- early relationships are important esp. parent-child

- unconscious roles in our mind determine our thoughts, feelings, behaviours

The Psychodynamic Approach - the role of the unconscious

ICEBERG ANALOGY

conscious mind:

the part of our mind that we know and are aware of

preconscious mind:

contains our thoughts and memories which aren't in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired

unconscious mind:

part of the mind that we are unaware of but drives much of our behaviour and personality - accessed through dreams/slip of the tongue

The Psychodynamic Approach - structure of our personality

alike the mind, the personality is split into three parts - id, and superego are like opposites thus they are always in conflict. the ego balances them out and stops conflict by using defence mechanisms

Id:

- present at birth - 'pleasure principle'

- entirely selfish part of out personalities, demands immediate satisfaction

- made up of unconscious desires and instincts

Ego:

- develops at age 2 - 'reality principle'

- mediates between Id and Superego i.e delay satisfying id until a better time

- role is to reduce conflict (using defence mechs)

Superego:

- formed at 5 (phallic stage) - 'morality principle'

- sometimes referred as out conscience

- represents moral standards of soc. and same sex parent

- causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken.

The Psychodynamic Approach - defence mechanisms

RDRD

Repression:

forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious into the unconscious - automatic but still affects behaviour e.g an abused child w/ no recollection but have trouble forming relationships

Denial:

refusing to accept some aspect of reality - a person may act like the event never happened

Rationalisation:

controversial behaviours are justified and explained in a rational manner to avoid the true explanation - made consciously tolerable

Displacement:

redirecting thoughts/feelings (usually hostile) from the source of the distress to another person/object

The Psychodynamic Approach - personality development

Freud claimed that child development occurred in 5 stages, each stage marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to be psychologically healthy, and to progress to the next stage.

all children were born with a libido (sexual urge) but are unconscious of it and unaware

mental abnormality can occur if one has unresolved conflicts which results in becoming fixated as a stage (stuck). this will carry certain behaviours into adulthood

The Psychodynamic Approach - psychosexual stages

Oral (0-2)

- focus of pleasure in mouth; only id is present

- success. completion = eating independently

- unresolved = oral behaviour e.g smoking/nail-biting

Anal (2-3)

- focus of pleasure in anus - ego develops

- success. completion = potty trained

- unresolved = anal retentive (harshly potty trained) = perfectionist + obsessive

- anal expulsive (lenient potty trained) = thoughtless + messy

Phallic (3-6)

- focus of pleasure in genital area; superego forms

- child experiences oedipus + electra complex

- success. completion = identification w/ same sex parent

- unresolved = narcissistic, reckless, maybe gay

Latent (6-12)

- earlier conflicts are repressed

Genital (12+)

- sexual desire becomes more conscious alongside the onset of puberty

- success. completion = forming healthy relationships

- unresolved = difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

(Only Awesome People Love Giraffes)

Psychodynamic Approach evaluation - irl

P: real world application

E: used to explain a wide range of phenomena i.e personality development and abnormal behaviour. draws attention to connection between childhood experiences and later dev.

+ a therapy (psychoanalysis) has been developed, designed to access the unconscious.

E: patients suffering with mild neuroses = improved their quality of life through the use of psychoanalysis - highlights soc. value of approach

L: this therapy has been criticised - not effective for severe ones e.g schizophrenia --> lost grip of reality, can't articulate thoughts and feelings. analysing patient's unconscious can intensify symptoms. only has irl app. to an extent; limited explan.

Psychodynamic Approach evaluation - can't generalise

P: issues with generalisability

E: intensive case studies done on individuals who were often in therapy

E: though it would give detailed data, claims formulated by Freud can't be used to explain all behaviour. impossible to make universal claims about human nature based on case studies of psych. abnormal people

L: Freud's interpretations of these individuals would have been highly subjective seen as they were observed by himself only. limited explanation

Psychodynamic Approach evaluation - unscientific

P: it's unscientific

E: concepts of id, ego, superego don't meet scientific criteria

E: all occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult to test - doesn't meet falsification/empirical evidence as it cannot be directly observed or be disproved.

L: although the concepts within the psychodynamic approach are not scientific, Fisher&Greenberg (1996) looked at 2,500 studies that had used scientific methods to test these concepts - found the existence of unconscious motives in human behaviour + support for defence mechanisms. provides approach w/ credible support and combating this criticism.

Psychodynamic Approach evaluation - determinist

P: determinist

E: suffers from 'psychic determinism' - argues all behaviour is driven by unconscious forces rooted in childhood.

E: ignoring the fact that individuals have free will in how

they choose to behave and instead views our behaviour as being determined by factors we have no control over.

L: offers a limited explanation of human behaviour.

Humanistic Approach

- emphasises the study of the whole person and believes in looking at the subjective experiences, feelings, and thoughts of a person

- rejects scientific models that try explain general principles of behaviour

Humanistic Approach - assumptions

- humans have free will and have free choices + not determined by external forces

- humans are active agents in their development

- person-centred approach

- people are basically good beings

- innate tendency to self-actualise and achieve full potential

Humanistic Approach - Maslow + hierarchy

Hierarchy of Needs

- we can only reach self-actualisation if we meet the other needs first

1: physiological e.g food + water

2. safety e.g shelter, a home

3. love/belonging e.g friendships + family

4. esteem e.g confidence + good self image

5. self-actualisation e.g morality, creativity etc

Humanistic Approach - Carl Rogers

said that personal growth requires a certain environment

- feelings of self worth develop in childhood through interactions with parents and significant others

Humanistic Approach - unconditional positive regard

when a person is accepted for who they are - associated with healthy psychological development and helps people reach self-actualisation

psychological problems in adulthood may be due to a lack of UPR from parents as a child

- only accepted if you behave how they want you to behave

Humanistic Approach - conditions of worth

conditions are placed on people by significant others which have to be fulfilled in order to earn positive regard from these people.

- individuals may only experience self acceptance if they meet these conditions --> this may lead to low self esteem and stop self-actualisation

Humanistic Approach - congruence

when the perceived self (how you see yourself) broadly match with your ideal self (who you would like to be). this is necessary for personal growth

Humanistic Approach - incongruence

if the gap between the two selves are too big, then you are in a state of incongruence

- creates feelings of negative self worth, making self-actualisation impossible

Humanistic Approach - client based therapy

this therapy is to help close the gap between the two selves and people with the problems of everyday living.

key features:

- client driven agenda

- focused on the relationship between therapist and client

- everyone can reach their full potential using this therapy

- sessions are led by the client not the therapist

- aimed to achieve congruence within someone

important elements of this therapy

- empathy and ability to understand the other's feelings, expressed or unexpressed

- intuitive, knows body language and could hear from tone of voice and reflect inner essence of what they're saying

he used the word client instead of patient as the word patient implies that something is wrong and it needs to be be cured - emphasised the importance of the individual making their own choices to seek help and overcome difficulties.

Humanistic Approach evaluation - real life app.

P: led to real life applications

E: Rogers developed client centred therapy that is used in education, health and social work systems.

E: demonstrates psych. value + improves people's QoL. clients directing the sessions are more effective in helping them than telling them what to do

L: however, techniques are limited - schizophrenics would find this difficult as they do not have a realistic view of themselves. limits generalisability and reduces soc. value of psych.

Humanistic Approach evaluation - free will

P: believes humans have free will over choices

E: all are able to achieve full potential and are free

E: good; not reduced down to predetermined devices that we have no control over. considers ability to determine own behaviour + takes into account subjective experience --> optimistic alternative

L:when taking a pos. approach, people who do elf-destructing behaviour/not interested in self-actualising are ignored. limited explanation of behaviour

Humanistic Approach evaluation - ethnocentric

P: ethnocentric

E: aspects of this approach is associated with individualistic cultures in the western world

E: difficult to generalise - collectivist cultures would reject this as they emphasise the need for interdependence - cannot identify with ideals of humanistic psychology

L: claims are culturally biased

Humanistic Approach evaluation - hard to test scientifically

P: concepts are hard to test scientifically

E: congruence and self-actualisation are vague and the methods used to test this don't produce objective data (unstructured interviews)

E: methods are subjective and open to bias; don't show cause and effect therefore lack of empirical evidence to support approach

L: adds little in increasing credibility of psychology as a science

Origins of Psychology - Wundt

Wundt opened the first lab dedicated to psychology in Germany

- father of psychology

- focusing on controlled research

- believed in studying behaviour that could be controlled in experimental conditions e.g standardised instructions allowing research to be replicated

Origins of Psychology - structuralism

approach used by Wundt involving breaking down conscious thoughts into their most basic elements.

Origins of Psychology - introspection

method used by Wundt whereby individuals examine their own mental and emotional state and break them, down into basic structures of thoughts, images, and sensations. also known as experimental self-observation

- involves training people to analyse the content of their thoughts.

Origins of Psychology - emergence of psychology (WPBCHBS)

1879:

first lab dedicated to psychological study opened by Wundt. his aim was to study the structure of the mind by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements = structuralism

used a method called introspection

seen as scientific progress, first of its kind + still used today to gain access to cognitive processes

early 1900s:

psychodynamic approach was discovered by Freud who argued that the physical and psychological problems could be explained by conflicts within the mind.

unconscious mind affected behaviour

1913:

value of introspection was questioned because it was too subjective --> shifted to a more scientific approach called the Behaviourist approach

more objective therefore more scientific

the focus of inner mental processes were lessened until the emergence of the cognitive approach!!

- focused on the inner mental processes e.g thoughts and how they influence behaviour (very scientific)

1950s:

humanistic approach

1960s

biological approach

- due to advances in tech, more understanding of brain and biological processes and how these go on and influence behaviour e.g hormones and genes

brain scanning and still exp. method still playing a key role

1960 onwards:

SLT

Origins of Psychology - ways of studying each approach

BIOLOGICAL:

- animal studies

- twin/family studies

- cases studies

- scanning techniques

BEHAVIOURIST:

- lab experiments

- animal studies

SLT:

- lab experiments

PSYCHODYNAMIC

- unstructured interviews

- case studies

COGNITIVE

- brain imaging

- case studies

- lab experiments

HUMANISTIC

- unstructured interviews

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : behaviourist

LAB

(+) highly controlled

- all extraneous variables are controlled so you can confidently say that the results drawn are accurate and reliable

- can establish a cause and effect relationship

- able to replicate and test for validity

(+) focuses on observable behaviour

- scientific + empirical evidence therefore producing quantitative data which is easier to analyse and draw conclusions from

(-) unrealistic environment

- low eco val; does not reflect irl situations so behaviour may not be true to how one would act irl

- results can't be accurately drawn or confidently used to explain behaviour

(-) artificial task

- low mundane realism; not reflective therefore cannot generalise/ establish behaviour irl outside a lab

ANIMAL STUDIES

(+) better than human studies

allows us to stud concepts that may be too unethical to study on humans

- improves understanding of behaviour in humans

(-) can't generalise; humans more complex e.g social norms and morality that affect how we behave

- laws + principles derived from these

- exps might apply more to animals than humans

(anthropomorphism)

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : cognitive

LAB

(+) highly controlled

high confidence in the results being due to the manipulation of the IV and not other variables

- can replicate and test for reliability and validity

(-) unrealistic

not reflective of irl exp, so low eco val + risk of ppts displaying demand characteristics

(-) artificial tasks

- not reflective, low mundane realism

CASE STUDIES

(+) can study rare conditions

provide insight to the working of some mental processes

- can study cases that could not be produced experimentally because of ethical and practical reasons

(-) can't generalise

- small sample as results are unique to individual

BRAIN IMAGING

(+) able to map brain areas to cognitive function

- scientific methods can increase understanding of the brain's influence on behaviour

- provides objective data that can be replicated

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : psychodynamic

CASE STUDIES

(-) mainly Austrian

- samples used in case studies are mainly Austrian so the findings lack population validity and are therefore difficult to generalise to other cultures

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

(+) detailed qualitative

- allows us to understand individual exp. more

(-) impossible to replicate

- findings and interpretations are subjective and may be influenced by researcher bias as they tend to interpret data in a way that supports their theory

- suffers from social desirability bias too

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : biological

SCANNING TECHNIQUES

(+) scientific methods

- improve understanding of brain influence on behaviour

- objective data which can be replicated and peer-reviewed

ANIMAL STUDIES

(+) allows us to study concepts that may be too unethical on humans

(-) humans much more complex

TWIN STUDIES

(-) meta-analysis = method flaws

- may include poorly controlled and biased studies that affect the internal validity of the findings and conclusions

(-) hard to distinguish between nature and nurture

- comparing behaviour makes this difficult

- twins share same environment and are treated similarly which can affect behaviour.

CASE STUDIES

e.g Phineas Gage

(+) allows us to study more rare conditions and give insight into how something works when it is functioning correctly e.g brain damage on personality

(+) allows us to study cases that could not be produced experimentally because of ethical reasons

(-) small sample, can't generalise

- findings unique to individual

(-) little control over number of variables

- difficult to confidently establish any causal relationships between variables

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : social learning theory

LAB

(+) highly controlled (you know the rest its been typed)

(-) BOBO DOLL STUDY - not reflective of irl

- displayed demand characteristics eg may have thought they are expected to behave that way and not their true behaviour\

Origins of Psychology - methods used AO3 : humanistic

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

(+) detailed qualitative data

- better understand individual exp.

(-) impossible to replicate

- influenced by researcher bias as interpretation is subjective to them

Comparison of approaches: topics to see overlap and differences

determinism (and its different types)

nature vs nurture

reductionist vs holistic

scientific and research methods used e.g lab studies

treatments of disorders e.g types of therapies

idiographic vs nomothetic