modern middle east exam 1

Judaism

Oldest monotheistic religion to believe in God, followers promised to follow God‘s rules, God would guide and protect them

Christianity

Grew from Judaism belief that Jesus is the son of God, spread under Roman empire

Islam

Belief in one, God (Allah) Founded by prophet Muhammad in 600s CE - Quran is the holy book

Monotheism

Belief in only one God key idea and Judaism, Christianity and Islam

Roman empire

Controlled Much of Europe and Middle East - Helped spread Christianity and later became Christian

Emperor Constantine

First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, made Christianity legal in the empire, which affected the Middle East

Byzantine empire

Eastern half of the Roman empire after the split - Capital is Constantinople - The byzantine empire spread Christianity eastward

Schism of 1054

Split between catholic and eastern orthodox churches This was caused by religious and political differences

Prophet Muhammad

Founder of Islam received God’s message (Quran) In Mecca

Mecca

Islam‘s Holiest city - birthplace of Muhammad - Muslims pray toward it

Umayyad empire

First major Islamic empire after Muhammad - Capital in Damascus - Spread Islam through conquest (In places like North Africa, Spain)

Abbasid dynasty

Took over the umayyads - moved capital to Baghdad, Focussed on knowledge culture and trade

Caliph

Leader of the Muslim community- Both political and religious authority (In early Islam)

Ulama

Islamic religious scholars — Helped interpret the Quran and guide the community

Sharia law

Islamic law based on the Quran and teachings of Muhammad — Covers daily life, morals, and religious duties

Sunni

Largest group in Islam (muslims) — Believe that the caliph Should be chosen by the people

Shia

Smaller branch of Islam (muslims) — Believe that the caliph should be a descendant of Muhammad

Seljuk Turks

Muslim warriors who took control of parts of the Middle East —-Defeated the bison teens, and helped spread Islam

Crusades

War between Christians and Muslims over the holy land — This led to centuries of tension between the two religions

Mongol invasion

Mongols destroyed parts of the Islamic world in the 1200s they took over Baghdad and weakened the abbasids

Ottoman Empire

Powerful Muslim empire from the 1300s to the 1920s — Controlled parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa —- Ruled by the sultans

Sultan mehmed II

Ottoman ruler who conquered Constantinople in 1453 — Turned it into the capital which is now known as Istanbul

Hagia Sophia

Big church in Constantinople turned into a mosque by the Ottomans —- Symbol of Islamic victory and power

Sultan Suleyman the magnificent

Most powerful ottoman ruler - Expanded the empire and improved laws and art

Millet system

Ottomans like religious groups Govern themselves — This helped manage the empire’s diversity

Devshirme

Christian boys taken by the Ottomans to serve the state they were trained to become soldiers or officials

Janissary corps

Elite ottoman, soldiers originally made up of boys from the devshirme system

Safavid empire

Rival Shia Muslim empire in Persia (Iran) — Often fought against the Sunni ottomans

Shah ismail I

Founder of the Safavid empire — made Shia Islam The official religion In Iran

Qajar dynasty

Persian (Iranian) Dynasty that came after the Safavids) — Face pressure from European powers

Mohammed (mehmet) Ali Of Egypt

Ottoman, governor of Egypt, who modernized army education and economy — grew crops like cotton — wanted independence from Ottomans — acted like a ruler, not a subject

Egyptian occupation of Syria 1830 to 1841

Muhammad Ali expanded into Syria to build a powerful empire — Which threatened the Ottomans — European powers Lake Britain in Austria, intervened to stop Egypt from getting too strong

Balta liman commercial convention 1838

Trade deal between Ottomans and Britain — Removed trade restrictions, but hurt local industries, boosted, European economic control, and ottoman economy

Cash crops

Crops going to sell (not to eat) — Egypt focussed on cotton — Tied economy to global markets — Great during high prices, but risky long-term

Global economic depression 1873

Cotton prices collapsed. Egypt and Ottomans fell into debt — Couldn’t repay European loans — Increased foreign control

urabi revolt 1879 to 1882

Egyptian army officer urabi pasha led a revolt against the ruler khedive And European control — Britain invaded and crushed it

British occupation of Egypt 1882

Britain invaded after the urabi revolt To protect the Suez Canal — They claimed it was temporary, but stayed for decades — Took over Egypt’s finances and administration

Greek revolution 1821 to 1830

Greeks fight to gain independence from the Ottoman empire — They got help from Britain France to vs Russia — This created the modern state of Greece, which was a big loss for the Ottomans

Lord Byron

British poet who supported the Greek independence movement — Died in Greece, but became a symbol of European support for national independence

Straits convention, 1841

Agreement between European powers and the ottoman empire about who can use Turkish Straits, like Bosporus and Dardanelles — Gave Ottomans control, but under European pressure This strengthen European control of the region

Tanzimat reforms 1839 to 1876

On an effort to modernize the empire — Introducing new laws, schools, in the military. — Try to strengthen the empire and stop it from falling apart & promised equal rights to non-Muslims, which led to tensions

Crimean war 1854-1856

Russia versus Ottoman Empire with help from Britain and France — The Ottomans won, but the war showed how weak they are, and it led to increased European involvement in the region

Land code of 1858

Ottoman Law that said land must be registered with government . The goal was better taxes and control, but the reality was that rich people took land from peasants which created more inequality

Mount Lebanon

Norwegian and modern Lebanon with many religious groups ( mainly maronites and Druze) Became a hotspot for religious tension and violence due to rising sectarian tensions

Sectarianism

Conflict and division based on religious or ethnic groups

European intervention

European powers got involved in ottoman affairs often claiming to protect minorities, — used it as an excuse to gain political and economic power in the region

Lebanon statute 1861

After sectarian violence Europeans made almonds agree to give Mount Lebanon special status with a Christian governor - showed how Europe controlled ottoman decisions

Salafism (19th century)

Islamic reform movement calling for a return to the “pure” Islam of the early generations (salaf= ancestors) —- Rejected western influence and aimed to relieve strict religious practises

Ijtihad

Islamic reasoning by scholars to interpret Islamic law — Islamic reformers wanted to bring back to adopt Islam to modern in law

Wahhabism

Ultra conservative movement from Arabia rejecting innovation — Inspired religious reforms and was supported by political rulers like ibn saud

Muhammad ibn saud

Ruler who Allied with Wahhabism In the 18th century — founded the Saudi state based on strict religious and political unity

Islamic modernists

Reformers who believed Islam could adopt to science, reason, and modern politics — Wanted to modernize for staying true to Islamic values (used ijtihad)

Ottoman nationalism (osmanlilik)

Idea that all people in the ottoman empire — Regardless of religion, ethnicity could be united as equal ottoman citizens — Tried to stop religious and ethnic conflict and hold empire together

Young Ottomans

Educated reformers who wanted constitutional government and Islamic values — pushed for a constitution and democracy in the 1870s

Shura

Islamic concept of consultation in governance— Reformers use this to argue Islam supports democracy

Ottoman Constitution 1876

First written constitution of the Ottoman Empire — Created a parliament, but was suspended soon after Sultan Abdulhamid II in 1878

Military medical school (Istanbul)

A modern training school for ottoman, military doctors — Part of reforms to modernize the army and science

dar al-funun

The first modern university in Iran — Symbol of Persian modernization and education reform

Hijaz railway

Railway from Damascus to Mecca funded I’m built by the Ottomans —- Boosted travel from pilgrims and helped ottoman control over Arabia

Persian constitutional revolution 1905 to 1911

Movement in Iran for constitution and elected Parliament (majlis) — Challenged royal power and demanded limits on monarchy

Majlis

The elected parliament created an Iran during the constitutional revolution — To represent modern political participation in Persia

Committee of union and progress (CUP)

Reformed political group of young military officers and elites in ottoman empire — Led the 1908 Revolution and brought back the constitution — Shift toward modern government

Hamidian era reforms

Reforms under Sultan abdulhamid II after he Suspended the constitution - Combined centralization, spying, Censorship and Islamic identity

Balkan wars

War in Southeast Europe, that broke Ottoman control over the Balkans — Made the Ottoman Empire weaker just before World War I

Armenian genocide 1915 to 1917

Mass killing and forced deportation of Armenians by the Ottoman government — over 1 million killed one of the first modern genocide

Talat pasha

Ottoman leader and member of the three Pasha’s — key planner of the Armenian genocide

Kaiser Wilhelm II

German emperor during World War I — Formed an alliance with Ottomans Because Germany wanted influence in the region

Berlin Baghdad railway

German funded Railway to connect to Europe to the Ottoman empire — This was a symbol of German ottoman cooperation; Threatened British interest

Central powers

World War I alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, I’m an empire and Bulgaria— This is the side that the Ottomans fought on in World War I

Triple entente

World War I alliance: Britain, France, Russia (Later US joined) — Opposed the central powers and defeated them

World War I 1914 to 1918

Global war that led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire — Middle East was carved up by the European powers afterward

Treaty of sevres 1920

Harsh peace treaty on the ottoman empire after World War I — Plan to divide ottoman lands and create Armenia + Kurdistan (but was rejected)

Greco-Turkish war

War between Greece and Turkish nationalists - Turks won under Ataturk — Helped lead to modern turkey border

Treaty of Lausanne 1923

Final peace treaty that replaced sevres — Recognized turkey as an independent republic with new borders

Mustafa Kemal ataturk

Leader of Turkish independence and founder of modern Turkey — rejected sevres, modernized Turkey with secular reforms

Kemalism

Ataturks ideology: nationalism, secularism and modernization — Reshaped turkey into a western style nation state

Kingdom of Kurdistan

Short-lived Kurdish state after World War I - Created due to sevres but crushed after Lausanne — Kurds remained stateless

Sharif Hussein

Arab leader who led revolt against ottomans with British support — expected Arab independence but was betrayed by postwar deals

Woodrow Wilson and 14 points

US presidents Plan for peace and self-determination — Gave hope to Arabs, but was ignored by colonial powers

Mandate system

League of nations system, where Britain and France controlled former ottoman lands — Middle East was divided and ruled by Europeans after World War I

Cairo Conference 1921

British meeting to plan rule over Iraq and Transjordan - Set up Hashemite kings in Iraq and Jordan

Hashemites

Royal family from Mecca (Sharif Husseins family) — Became kings of Iraq and Jordan under British rule

Wafd party

Egyptian nationalist political party — Lead resistance to British rule after World War I

Muslim brotherhood 1928

Islamic revivalist movement founded in Egypt — wanted Islamic law and identity opposed British and secularism

Hasan al-Banna

Founder of the Muslim brotherhood — Called for moral reform and Islamic unity

Anglo- Persian treaty 1919

Agreement between Britain and Iran from military and oil control — Seen as a British domination — rejected by Iranian nationalist

Reza khan

Iranian military leader who seized power in 1921 — became shah of Iran — modernized the country like ataturk

Anglo Persian oil company

British owned company controlling Iran oil — Major symbol of foreign exploitation in Iran