Key Concepts

Natural Philosophy

Newton’s study of nature through empirical and mathematical reasoning, avoiding speculative hypotheses.

Abductive Reasoning

Inference to the best explanation, used to find the simplest explanation for observed phenomena.

Simultaneity

The concept of two or more events occurring at the same time; relative to the observer’s frame of reference.

Determinism

The view that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior states and natural laws.

Free Will

The concept of making choices unconstrained by certain forms of causation.

Theory of Forms (Plato)

Abstract entities representing the truest reality, existing beyond the sensory world.

Third Man Argument (Aristotle)

Aristotle’s critique of Plato’s forms, suggesting that forms lead to an infinite regress.

Nominalism

The belief that universals (e.g., 'man' or 'frog') are only names or conventions, not independently existing entities.

Logical Realism (Russell)

The belief that relations, such as 'is to the left of,' exist as real, universal entities.

Laplacian Determinism

Laplace’s theory that a hypothetical intelligence could predict the future and past if it knew all forces and positions.

Hypotheses non fingo

Newton’s statement rejecting speculative hypotheses in favor of directly observable phenomena and mathematical laws.

Action at a Distance

Newton’s description of forces like gravity acting over distances without physical contact or a medium.

Heliocentrism

The model of the solar system with the Sun at the center, a key idea for Newton’s theories of planetary motion.

Primary and Secondary Systems (Einstein)

Primary system involves sensory experiences (everyday thinking); secondary system involves abstract, scientific reasoning.

Immanent Universals (Aristotle)

Universals that exist within objects themselves, as opposed to existing in a separate realm.

Empiricism (knowledge through sensory experience) vs. Rationalism (knowledge through logical deduction and innate ideas).

Empiricism vs. Rationalism

Causal Necessity (Hume)

Hume’s view that causation arises from observed regularity rather than inherent necessity.

Laplacian Demon

A hypothetical intelligence that could predict every future and past event if it knew all positions and forces in the universe.

Science as a Refinement of Everyday Thinking (Einstein)

Science extends everyday observations and reasoning with systematic and mathematical refinement.

Determinism

the belief that all events in the universe are determined by prior causes and can, in principle, be predicted with absolute certainty if enough information is known.