Key Concepts
Key Concepts by Philosopher
Isaac Newton
- Natural Philosophy: Study of nature through empirical observation and mathematical principles to explain and predict phenomena.
- Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy:
- Simplicity: Prefer the simplest explanation (similar to Occam’s Razor).
- Consistency: Similar effects should have similar causes.
- Universality: Generalize qualities observed in all cases to apply universally.
- Law of Universal Gravitation: Gravity acts universally and can explain both terrestrial and celestial phenomena.
- Empiricism over Hypotheses ("Hypotheses non fingo"): Newton avoided untestable explanations, focusing on directly observable phenomena and mathematical reasoning.
- Reason for Skepticism: Newton’s theory of gravity introduced new concepts that contradicted existing beliefs, especially the widely accepted view that forces could only act through direct physical contact (like a push or pull).
- Key Critics: Philosophers like René Descartes and others believed that space must be filled with some kind of substance or medium for forces to be transmitted, so they found Newton’s “instantaneous force” acting across empty space difficult to accept.
- Since Newton didn’t explain how gravity worked across space, only that it did, some contemporaries thought his theory was incomplete or too abstract.
Albert Einstein
- Stratification of Science:
- Primary System: Everyday thinking rooted in sensory experiences.
- Secondary System: Scientific thinking, where concepts are abstract and not directly tied to senses.
- Special Theory of Relativity (1905): Establishes that time and space are relative and that the speed of light is constant across all reference frames.
- Relativity of Simultaneity: Events that are simultaneous for one observer may not be for another, based on their relative motion.
- Science as "Refinement of Everyday Thinking": Science builds on, refines, and systematizes the observations and logic used in daily life.
- Einstein’s principles imply that time and space are not fixed, universal absolutes; they are fluid and interconnected, changing with the observer’s motion. This challenges the traditional Newtonian view and provides a more dynamic, flexible model of the universe
Plato
- Theory of Forms: Abstract, non-physical entities (e.g., Justice, Beauty) that represent the most accurate reality and exist in an ideal realm.
- Absolute Knowledge through Forms: True knowledge is of these eternal, unchanging forms, rather than the changing objects of sensory experience.
- Dualism of Mind and Body: Knowledge of forms is accessed through intellect, distinct from physical senses.
Aristotle
- Immanent Universals: Unlike Plato’s transcendent forms, universals exist within objects and are observed through empirical experience.
- Third Man Argument: Critique of Plato’s forms, suggesting an infinite regress when each form requires another form to explain its relationship with particulars.
- Nominalist Tendencies: While Aristotle believed in universals, he argued they only exist within particulars and cannot exist independently.
David Hume
- Causal Necessity: The idea that causation is based on habitual observations of events following one another rather than an inherent necessity.
- Empiricism and Skepticism: Knowledge derives from sensory experience; skepticism applies to concepts without direct observation.
- Liberty and Necessity: Free will and determinism may be compatible if "liberty" is defined as acting according to one’s will, even if causally determined.
Berkeley
- Impossibility of Abstraction: Berkeley argued we can’t conceive of abstract entities like “frog-ness” without picturing a specific frog with particular characteristics.
- Nominalism: Universals are merely names or concepts for groups of similar objects, not independent entities.
- Empiricism: All knowledge comes from sensory experience, rejecting the need for non-empirical abstractions.
Bertrand Russell
- Logical Realism: Belief in the existence of relations (e.g., “to the left of”) as universals, arguing that understanding propositions requires recognizing relations as real entities.
- According to Russell, understanding a proposition requires recognizing these universals. For example, the truth of a statement like "The apple is red" depends on the real existence of the universal "redness" that applies to the apple.
Russell held that relations (e.g., "larger than," "to the left of") are also essential universals. He argued that our knowledge of the world depends not only on properties but also on recognizing the reality of relations among objects
- World of Universals: Russell contended that knowledge relies on identifying universals and relations in propositions about the world.
- Rejection of Nominalism: Unlike Berkeley, Russell believed in the independent existence of universals, including abstract relations.
Pierre-Simon Laplace
- Laplacian Determinism: The idea that if a super-intelligence (Laplace's Demon) knew all positions and forces in the universe, it could predict the entire future and past with certainty.
- Uniformity in Nature: A deterministic universe governed by strict causal laws that allow for complete predictability of events.
Sam Harris
- Deterministic View of Free Will: Argues that free will is an illusion, as our thoughts and actions are outcomes of prior causes.
-We feel as though we are making choices, but these choices are predetermined by a chain of prior events that we cannot influence.
For example, our desires, motivations, and thoughts are shaped by factors like genetics, upbringing, and environmental influences, leaving no room for autonomous decision-making.
- Humanitarian Argument Against Free Will: Harris suggests that belief in free will leads to moral blame and guilt for behaviors beyond our control.
Daniel Dennett
- Criticism of Harris on Free Will: Defends a compatibilist view where free will is compatible with determinism, emphasizing that self-reflection and decision-making are crucial to human agency.
- Role of the Self in Free Will: Dennett sees the capacity for “doing otherwise” as central to moral responsibility and psychological development.
Key Terms
1. Natural Philosophy – Newton’s study of nature through empirical and mathematical reasoning, avoiding speculative hypotheses.
2. Abductive Reasoning – Inference to the best explanation, used to find the simplest explanation for observed phenomena.
3. Simultaneity – (the concept of two or more events occurring at the same time.) Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity revolutionized this view by showing that simultaneity is relative to the observer’s frame of reference.
4. Determinism – The view that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior states and natural laws.
- Types: Naturalistic Determinism (natural laws) vs. Supernatural Determinism (divine forces).
5. Free Will – The concept of making choices unconstrained by certain forms of causation.
- Key Positions: Libertarianism (free will is independent of determinism) vs. Compatibilism (free will is compatible with determinism).
6. Theory of Forms (Plato) – Abstract entities representing the truest reality, existing beyond the sensory world.
7. Third Man Argument (Aristotle) – Aristotle’s critique of Plato’s forms, suggesting that forms lead to an infinite regress.
8. Nominalism – The belief that universals (e.g., “man” or “frog”) are only names or conventions, not independently existing entities.
9. Logical Realism (Russell) – The belief that relations, such as “is to the left of,” exist as real, universal entities.
10. Laplacian Determinism – Laplace’s theory that a hypothetical intelligence, knowing all forces and positions, could predict the future and past with certainty.
11. Hypotheses non fingo – Newton’s statement rejecting speculative hypotheses in favor of directly observable phenomena and mathematical laws.
12. Action at a Distance – Newton’s description of forces like gravity acting over distances without physical contact or a medium.
13. Heliocentrism – The model of the solar system with the Sun at the center, a key idea for Newton’s theories of planetary motion.
14. Primary and Secondary Systems (Einstein) – Primary system involves sensory experiences (everyday thinking); secondary system involves abstract, scientific reasoning.
15. Immanent Universals (Aristotle) – Universals that exist within objects themselves, as opposed to existing in a separate realm (Plato’s view).
16. Empiricism vs. Rationalism – Empiricism (knowledge through sensory experience) vs. Rationalism (knowledge through logical deduction and innate ideas).
17. Causal Necessity (Hume) – Hume’s view that causation arises from observed regularity rather than inherent necessity.
18. Laplacian Demon – Hypothetical intelligence that, if it knew all positions and forces in the universe, could predict every future and past event. The concept is used to illustrate the idea of determinism—the belief that all events in the universe are determined by prior causes and can, in principle, be predicted with absolute certainty if enough information is known.
19. Science as a Refinement of Everyday Thinking (Einstein) – Science extends everyday observations and reasoning with systematic and mathematical refinement.