Sociology Chapter 2

What is the scientific method?

A process involving the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses using systematic observation, measurement, and/or experiments.

What is a theory?

An abstract, systematic model explaining how some aspect of the world works.

What is a hypothesis?

A proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a stated direction.

What is deductive research?

Starting with a theory, forming a hypothesis, collecting data, and using the evidence to test the theory.

What is inductive research?

Starting with observations and using them to develop a theory.

What is quantitative research?

Research using information that is already numerical or can be converted into numbers.

What is qualitative research?

Research that collects information that cannot easily be converted into numerical form, often focusing on meanings and experiences.

What is correlation?

When two variables tend to change or track together.

Does correlation prove causation?

No. Correlation can result from chance, reverse causality, or a third variable.

What three things are needed to establish causality?

Correlation, time order, and ruling out alternative explanations.

What is reverse causality?

When the researcher thinks A causes B, but B actually causes A.

What is a spurious relationship?

A relationship between two variables that appears real but is actually caused by a third factor.

What is an independent variable?

A factor the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable.

What is a dependent variable?

The outcome the researcher is trying to explain.

What is a moderating variable?

A variable that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

What is a mediating variable?

A variable that comes between the independent and dependent variables and helps explain their relationship.

What is operationalization?

Defining and measuring a concept in a specific study.

What is validity?

Whether a measure actually measures what it is intended to measure.

What is reliability?

Whether a measure produces consistent results.

What is the difference between validity and reliability?

Validity = accuracy. Reliability = consistency.

What is generalizability?

The extent to which research findings can be applied to a larger group than the one studied.

What is the white coat effect?

When the presence of the researcher affects the behavior or responses of subjects.

What is reflexivity?

Critically considering the researcher's own role in and effect on the research.

What is participant observation?

A qualitative method where researchers observe people's behavior in their actual social setting.

What is a survey?

An ordered series of questions designed to gather information from respondents.

What is response/selection bias?

Bias that occurs when the people who respond to a study differ systematically from those who don't.

What is the General Social Survey (GSS)?

A major U.S. survey that repeatedly collects information about Americans' characteristics and opinions.

What is a cross-sectional study?

A study that examines a population at a particular point in time; repeated cross-sectional studies use new samples in each wave.

What is a panel/longitudinal study?

A study that follows the same individuals, households, or social units over time.

What is a population?

The entire group a researcher wants to study.

What is a sample?

The subset of the population from which researchers actually collect data.

What is a census?

Collecting information from the entire population.

What is a representative sample?

A sample that accurately represents the larger population it is intended to stand for.

What is a case study?

An intensive investigation of one particular unit or social setting.

What is the main advantage of a case study?

It provides a lot of depth and detailed information.

What is the main disadvantage of a case study?

Its findings usually have low generalizability.

What are historical methods?

Research using historical documents and artifacts such as newspapers, diaries, government records, and transcripts.

What is comparative research?

Comparing two or more entities that are similar in many ways but differ in an important dimension.

What is content analysis?

Systematic analysis of the content of written, recorded, or visual material.

What is manifest content?

Content that is directly observable or explicitly stated.

What is latent content?

Meaning that is implied rather than directly stated.

What are experimental methods?

Methods where researchers alter something for a group and observe the resulting effects, often comparing it with a control group.

What are the three major ethical rules in sociological research?

Do no harm, obtain informed consent, and ensure voluntary participation.

What is informed consent?

Participants must know they are part of a study, what they will do, and how the results will be used.

What does voluntary participation mean?

People can choose whether to participate and can leave the study without penalty.

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A body that reviews research involving human subjects to help ensure that participants are protected.

What is feminist methodology?

An approach that treats women's experiences as legitimate sources of knowledge, considers the researcher's role, and can seek research that improves women's lives.

What is the biggest overall goal of sociological research?

To use systematic evidence to understand and explain social phenomena and work toward identifying causal processes.