Psychology Chapter 1 COMPLETE Test1 study guide DR.Matthew Webster HCC

Explain what psychology is

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior

What can be directly observed.

Mental Processes

Thoughts, feelings, and motives that a person experiences privately.

Critical Thinking

Thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating evidence.

Skepticism

Challenging whether a supposed fact is really true.

Objectivity

Using the empirical method to see things as they really are, not how we want them to be.

Curiosity

An interest in understanding human behavior and mental processes.

Four Attitudes of the Scientific Approach

Critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity, and curiosity.

Positive Psychology Movement

A branch of psychology emphasizing human strengths and the factors that lead to a meaningful life.

Roots of Psychology

Western Philosophy, Biology, and Physiology.

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Wundt's Structuralism

An approach to identifying the basic structures of the human mind.

William James' Functionalism

An approach focusing on the purposes of the mind and behavior in adapting to the environment.

Charles Darwin

Proposed the theory of natural selection.

Psychodynamic Approach

Focuses on unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and the conflict between biological drives and societal demands.

Sigmund Freud

The founder of the psychodynamic approach.

Humanistic Approach

Focuses on a person's positive qualities, potential for growth, and free will.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.

Evolutionary Approach

Uses ideas like adaptation and natural selection to explain behavior.

Sociocultural Approach

Examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior.

Biological Approach

Focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.

Mind-Body Connection

How the mind impacts the body and how the body affects the mind.

Freudian views on human nature

Believed behavior is caused by unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses from early childhood.

Scientific Method

A method for gaining knowledge about mind and behavior.

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe, 2. Hypothesize, 3. Test, 4. Draw conclusions, 5. Evaluate theory.

Theory

A system of ideas that attempts to explain observations and make predictions.

Hypothesis

An educated guess derived from a theory; it can be tested.

Empirical Research

Testing a hypothesis through direct observation and measurement.

Variable

Anything that can change.

Operational Definition

A description of how a variable will be measured.

Data Analysis

The process of crunching numbers mathematically.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the results are consistent.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure.

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines the results of many different studies.

Descriptive Research

Research that describes a phenomenon but does not answer questions about why it is the way it is.

Methods of Descriptive Research

Observation, interviews and surveys, case studies.

Correlational Research

Research that identifies relationships between variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number between -1.00 and 1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.

Positive Correlation

Factors vary in the same direction (e.g., longer lecture, more yawns).

Negative Correlation

Factors vary in opposite directions (e.g., longer lecture, lower attention).

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation does not equal causation; it does not explain why behavior occurs.

Third Variable Problem

When an unmeasured variable causes the correlation between two other variables.

Longitudinal Designs

A type of correlational research that measures variables in multiple waves over time.

Big Data

The use of large, naturally occurring sources of data (e.g., public records, online tracking).

Experimental Research

Research that determines causation by manipulating an independent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment; it may change as a result of the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group treated equally but not exposed to the independent variable manipulation.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly to minimize bias.

External Validity

Whether the results of a study generalize to the real world.

Internal Validity

Whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable manipulation, free from bias or logical errors.

Experimenter Bias

The influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of the research.

Research Participant Bias

The influence of a participant's expectations on their behavior in a study.

Placebo Effect

When a participant's expectations, rather than the actual treatment, produce an outcome.

Double-Blind Experiment

A solution to bias where neither the experimenter nor the participants know which group is receiving the treatment.

Population (Research)

The entire group about whom a conclusion is to be drawn.

Sample (Research)

The portion of the population actually observed in the study.

Representative Sample

A sample where each individual has an equal chance of being selected, minimizing bias.

Laboratory Setting ("Artificial" World)

A controlled research setting.

Natural Setting ("Real" World)

A naturalistic observation environment.

Statistics

Mathematical methods used to report and interpret data.

Descriptive Statistics

Methods used to describe and summarize data (e.g., mean, median, mode).

Inferential Statistics

Methods used to draw conclusions about data and make predictions.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, median, and mode.

Measures of Dispersion

Range and standard deviation.

Statistical Significance

A measure indicating the probability that the results are due to chance (often p < .05).

APA Guidelines for Research Ethics

Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, and careful use of deception.

Informed Consent

Participants must be told what to expect and agree to participate.

Confidentiality

Researchers are responsible for keeping all participant data private.

Debriefing

Informing participants of the study's purpose and methods after the experiment is concluded.

Deception (in research)

When participants are not told the true purpose of the study to avoid influencing their behavior; must be followed by debriefing.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that evaluates the ethical soundness of research proposals.

Animal Research Benefits

Has led to benefits for humans.

Considerations for Animal Research

Weighing benefits versus harm to the animal, and adhering to standards of care.

A Wise Consumer Cautions

Avoid overgeneralizing results, exercise caution in applying group trends to individuals, look for converging evidence, remember correlation does not equal causation, and consider the source.

Health and Wellness Study (Trauma)

Observation: spousal suicide survivors got sick more; Hypothesis: writing about trauma improves health; Test: trauma writing vs. uninteresting topic; Conclusion: trauma writing improved physical health; Evaluation: expressive writing can have health benefits.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system.

Nervous System Characteristics

Complexity, integration, adaptability (plasticity), and electrochemical transmission.

Afferent Nerves

Carry information from the body to the brain (sensory nerves).

Efferent Nerves

Carry information from the brain to the body (motor nerves).

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls muscular activity; includes sensory nerves and motor nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls internal organs; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body.

Glial Cells (Glia)

Provide support and nutrition to neurons; can repopulate themselves.

Neurons

Information processing cells in the brain (about 100 billion).

Mirror Neurons

In primates, involved in imitation and social perception.

Neuron Structure

Cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath.

Cell Body

Contains the nucleus; directs the manufacture of substances for the neuron's growth and maintenance.

Dendrites

Treelike fibers that receive information and orient it toward the cell body.

Axon

The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons, speeding up neural impulses.

Neural Impulse

The electrical signal that travels along the axon.

Polarization

The imbalance of charges across the neuron's membrane at rest.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron.

Semipermeable Membrane

The neuron's membrane that allows certain ions to pass through.

Ion Channels

Pores that open and close, allowing ions to flow into and out of the neuron.